1. Definition
Refers to various painting styles that developed in princely states of Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh from the 16th to early 19th century.
2. Main Centres
Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi, etc.
3. ‘Rajput Paintings’ Term
The term Rajput Painting was coined by Ananda Coomaraswamy in 1916 to describe artworks patronized by Rajput kings. It helped distinguish these paintings from Mughal art and included regional styles like the Malwa and Pahari (Himalayan) schools. Today, the term ‘Rajput School’ is outdated; we now use ‘Rajasthani’ and ‘Pahari’ instead.
4. Diversity in Style
Though geographically close, these painting styles varied greatly. Brushwork ranged from fine to bold, and colors could be bright and vivid or soft and gentle. Composition styles differed in how they depicted architecture, people, and nature. Storytelling varied too—some were realistic, while others were more expressive. While some focused on natural beauty, others used stylized, mannered designs.
5. Materials and Technique
Rajput paintings were created on waslis—sheets of handmade paper glued together. Artists drew outlines in black or brown, then filled in colors using notes or patches for guidance. Pigments were made from minerals, gold, and silver, mixed with glue. Brushes were crafted from camel or squirrel hair. Finally, the paintings were burnished with agate to give them a smooth, shiny finish.
6. Teamwork in Painting
In Rajput painting workshops, the master artist created the initial outline and design. Pupils and specialists then worked on coloring, facial features, nature, and animals. A scribe added the text or verse in the blank space. Finally, the master artist applied the finishing touches to complete the artwork.
Themes of Paintings – An Overview
1. Bhakti Movement and Vaishnavism
By the 16th century, Vaishnavism, especially the worship of Rama and Krishna, gained popularity in Western, Northern, and Central India. Krishna was portrayed both as a divine figure and an ideal lover, leading to a unique blend of sensuality and spiritual devotion in art and poetry.
2. Radha-Krishna: Symbol of Divine Love
In devotional art, Krishna represents the Creator and Radha symbolizes the human soul. Their divine love reflects the soul’s deep devotion to God, a theme beautifully portrayed in Gita Govinda-inspired paintings.
3. Gita Govinda
The Gita Govinda is a 12th-century lyrical poem by Jayadeva, the court poet of Lakshmana Sen of Bengal. It centers on the mystical love of Radha and Krishna, richly expressing Shringara rasa (romantic sentiment). This poem became a major theme for miniature paintings.
4. Rasamanjari (Bouquet of Delight)
Composed by Bhanu Datta, a 14th-century Maithil Brahmin, the Rasamanjari is a treatise on rasa theory. It classifies Nayakas (heroes) and Nayikas (heroines) by age—Baal (child), Taruna (youth), Praudha (mature)—and by personality types like Padmini, Chitrini, Shankhini, and Hastini. It also includes emotional types such as Khandita, Vasaksajja, Abhisarika, and Utka. Though not originally in the text, Krishna is often depicted as the ideal lover in related paintings.
5. Rasikapriya (The Connoisseur’s Delight)
Composed in 1591 by Keshav Das, the court poet of Raja Madhukar Shah of Orchha, Rasikapriya is written in Brajbhasha. It explores the emotions of love—togetherness, separation, jealousy, anger, and reconciliation—through the eternal lovers, Radha and Krishna.
6. Kavipriya
Kavipriya, also written by Keshav Das, is dedicated to Rai Parbin, a renowned courtesan of Orchha. A notable section of the text is Baramasa, which describes the seasons and festivals month-wise. It tells the story of a nayika trying to persuade the nayaka not to leave for a journey.
7. Bihari Satsai
Written by Bihari Lal in 1662, the Satsai is a collection of 700 couplets known for their wit and wisdom. It was composed under the patronage of Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur. The text inspired many paintings, especially in the Mewar School, and occasionally in the Pahari School.
8. Ragamala Paintings
Ragamala paintings are visual representations of ragas and raginis (musical modes), blending music, poetry, and visual art into a harmonious form of expression.
9. Other Romantic and Folk Tales
Popular themes in painting:
- Holi-Maru
- Sohni-Mahiwal
- Mrigavat
- Chaurpanchashika
- Laurchanda
10. Epic and Religious Texts in Painting
Texts like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, and Devi Mahatmya were frequently illustrated across all schools of Indian painting, forming a common and rich visual tradition in religious and epic storytelling.
11. Secular & Royal Themes
Miniature paintings also captured a wide range of themes beyond religion, including darbar (court) scenes, historical events, hunting and war, festivals, weddings, dance, music, and garden parties. They featured portraits of kings, queens, and nobles, along with cityscapes, birds, and animals.
Malwa School of Painting
The Malwa School of painting flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE, representing the Hindu Rajput courts of Central India. Unlike other Rajasthani schools tied to specific kingdoms, Malwa lacks a clear origin point but is linked to regions like Mandu, Nusratgarh, and Datia. Its style evolved from Jain and Chaurpanchashika manuscripts, using a simple, two-dimensional approach. Early examples include the Amaru Shataka (1652) and Ragamala by Madho Das (1680). While Datia Palace murals show little Mughal influence, paper works retain indigenous traits. The absence of royal portraits and patron names suggests that travelling artists sold these paintings on popular themes like the Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana, Ragamala, and Baramasa to local rulers.
Mewar School of Painting
Malwa School of Painting (1600–1700 CE)
The Malwa School of painting flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE in Central India, particularly in regions like Mandu, Nusratgarh, and Datia. It was closely associated with Hindu Rajput courts of the area.
Key Features:
Unlike other Rajasthani schools, the Malwa School has no fixed court of origin. Its style is marked by simple, two-dimensional figures and the use of bright, bold colors. It draws inspiration from Jain manuscript traditions and the Chaurpanchashika style.
Famous Works:
Notable works from the Malwa School include the Amaru Shataka, dated 1652 CE, and a Ragamala series painted by artist Madho Das in 1680 CE.
Subjects and Themes:
The Malwa School featured rich mythological and devotional themes, including episodes from the Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana, Ragamala (musical modes), and Baramasa (the twelve seasons).
Special Points:
The murals in Datia Palace show no Mughal influence, and the paintings on paper reflect traditional Indian styles. The absence of royal portraits or patron names suggests that these artworks were likely created by wandering artists and sold to local rulers.
Bundi School of Painting
Time Period:
The Malwa School of painting flourished from the late 16th century (around 1591) and reached its peak during the 17th and 18th centuries, becoming a prominent artistic tradition in Central India.
Region:
The Bundi School of painting, based in Rajasthan, is closely connected with the Kota School, sharing many stylistic features and themes between the two traditions.
Main Patrons:
Main Features of Bundi Style:
The Bundi School is known for its brilliant color sense and formal design. Its early phase shows Persian influence, with some inscriptions in Persian. The style features detailed drawings, especially of elephants , horses (equestrian portraits), and women with petite, round faces and pinched waists. There’s a deep love for nature, shown through lush vegetation, hills, rivers, water bodies, wildlife, and birds. Common themes include royal life (darbar scenes, hunting, processions), mythological stories like Krishna Leela, and Baramasa (depictions of the twelve months).
Important Works:
The Bundi Ragamala (1591 CE) was painted in Chunar under the patronage of Bhoj Singh. Artists Shaykh Hasan, Shaykh Ali, and Shaykh Hatim created the series, drawing inspiration from Mughal masters Mir Sayyid Ali and Khwaja Abdus Samad. The Raga Dipak painting depicts a romantic night scene with glowing lamps, a sky full of stars, and a yellow moon marking the passage of time. Interestingly, the label was written before the painting was finished, and the verse was never added. The Baramasa theme in this series describes the twelve months and is based on a text by Keshav Das, composed for the courtesan Rai Parbin of Orchha.
Unique Points:
In the Bundi School, paintings were often completed before the verses were written. They featured innovative lamp designs and vivid romantic settings, blending Deccani colors with Rajasthani themes. The school shared close ties with the Kota School, both being renowned for naturalistic scenes and lively depictions of animals.
Kota School of Painting
The Kota School of painting, which emerged from the Bundi tradition, is known for its vivid hunting scenes and a strong focus on animals and combat. Initially part of the Bundi kingdom, Kota became a separate state in 1625 when Emperor Jahangir rewarded Madhu Singh for his loyalty. The Kota style developed around the 1660s under Jagat Singh and remained similar to Bundi for a few decades. Over time, it evolved a unique identity with bold figures, dramatic architecture, and a strong emphasis on landscapes. Under Ram Singh I (1686–1708), artists expanded their subjects greatly. During Umed Singh’s reign (1770–1819), his regent Zalim Singh encouraged his interest in hunting, leading to numerous paintings that glorified royal hunts. Women of the court also appeared in these scenes. Kota paintings are known for their spontaneous brushwork, detailed shading, and the distinct double-lid eye style, showcasing the artists’ exceptional skill in portraying animals and action.
Bikaner School of Painting
Historical Background
The Kingdom of Bikaner was founded by Rao Bika Rathore in 1488. Its painting tradition rose in the 17th century, heavily influenced by the Mughal style. Under Rao Anup Singh (1669–1698), Bikaner became a cultural hub with the establishment of a library that housed valuable manuscripts and paintings.
Mughal Influence
Bikaner's close ties with the Mughal court introduced an elegant painting style with a subdued color palette. Mughal artists frequently visited and worked in Bikaner. One early patron, Karan Singh, even employed Ustad Ali Raza, a skilled painter from Delhi, to enhance the region’s artistic tradition.
Key Artists & Their Work
Mandi System (Art Studios)
In Bikaner, Mandi referred to art studios where groups of painters worked under the supervision of master artists like Ruknuddin and Ibrahim. A court archivist documented details such as the artist’s name, date, and place of production. Uniquely, the master’s name was sometimes inscribed even if the actual work was done by pupils. The final finishing touches, called Gudarayi, were added by the master. These studios also took care of Marammat (artwork repair) and Nakal (copying older works).
Artist Portraits & Documentation
The Bikaner School is unique for preserving portraits and records of its artists, who were referred to as Usta or Ustad. Many paintings include the artist’s name, ancestry details, dates, and inscriptions. These inscriptions are often in Marwari and sometimes in Persian. Additional documentation comes from Bahis—royal diaries that recorded daily events, further enriching the historical record of Bikaner’s art tradition.
Distinctive Features
The Bikaner School blends strong Mughal influence with distinct local character. It features soft, muted color tones, delicate and well-modeled figures, and detailed archival records. Uniquely, it includes portraits of the painters themselves. The school is renowned for themes like Baramasa, Ragamala, Rasikapriya, and various religious texts.
Kishangarh School of Painting
The Kishangarh School of painting is considered one of the most stylized forms of Rajasthani miniatures, known for its refined elegance and unique facial features like arched eyebrows, lotus-shaped eyes, and slender noses. Founded in 1609 by Kishan Singh, the style developed under Man Singh (1658–1706) and matured during Raj Singh’s reign (1706–1748), characterized by elongated human forms, lush greens, and panoramic landscapes. Influenced by the Pushtimargiya sect, themes of Krishna Lila became central to court art. The most famous artist, Nihal Chand, served Sawant Singh (1735–1757) and created poetic paintings of Radha and Krishna, often set in vast, colorful landscapes, highlighting the romantic and devotional essence of Kishangarh art.
Jodhpur School of Painting
Historical Background
The Marwar School developed in the Jodhpur region and showed strong Mughal influence from the 16th century, particularly in portraits and court scenes. However, the vibrant local folk style remained dominant and continued to shape most illustrated works.
Important Phases and Rulers
Key Features of Jodhpur Paintings
The Marwar School blends Mughal elegance with local folk traditions. It features a documentary style with detailed portraits, court scenes, and events. Religious themes like the Bhagavata Purana, Ramayana, and Krishna Leela are common, often set against local backdrops—such as Ayodhya resembling Jodhpur in Ramayana paintings. Equestrian portraits, especially of Veer Durgadas, are frequent. The paintings realistically depict costumes, bazaars, temples, and everyday city life.
Documentation and Inscriptions
Marwar paintings generally lack detailed inscriptions before the 19th century. They rarely mention the date, artist’s name, or place of painting, making it difficult to trace their exact origins or creators.
Unique Points
The Marwar School maintained a strong folk base that resisted complete Mughal domination. Its vibrant painting tradition lasted well into the 19th century, until photography replaced court documentation. Jodhpur artists often localized religious stories by depicting divine events against the backdrop of their own city’s architecture and culture.
Jaipur School of Painting
Origin and Background
The Jaipur School of painting began in Amer, the former capital of Jaipur, which was geographically close to Agra and Delhi, leading to strong Mughal influence. The Jaipur rulers had close ties with the Mughals—Raja Bharmal (1548–1575) gave his daughter in marriage to Akbar, Bhagwant Das (1575–1592) was Akbar’s close friend, and Man Singh served as one of Akbar’s most trusted generals.
Foundation of Jaipur (1727)
Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743) founded the city of Jaipur and moved the capital from Amer. Under his rule, the Jaipur School of painting flourished. He reorganized the Suratkhana (royal painting studio), brought Mughal painters from Delhi, and invited various craftsmen and artists to settle in Jaipur, turning it into a major artistic center.
Themes under Sawai Jai Singh
The Jaipur School was deeply influenced by Vaishnavism and commissioned numerous paintings on themes like Radha-Krishna, Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda, Baramasa, and Ragamala. Often, the hero in these artworks resembled the ruling king, blending devotion with royal identity. Portrait painting was also popular, with renowned artists like Sahibram and Muhammad Shah contributing significantly to the style.
Later Rulers and Art
Features of Jaipur Painting
The Jaipur School blended Mughal elegance with Rajasthani folk traditions. Popular themes included Radha-Krishna, religious and literary texts, royal portraits, and courtly life. Artists used bright colors, lavish gold, and intricate detailing. Large and even life-size portraits were preferred, and techniques like tracing and pouncing were used to reproduce artworks accurately.
Bhagvata Purana
Depicting scenes from the Bhagvata Purana was a popular theme in medieval Indian art, especially focusing on the leelas of Lord Krishna. This Malwa-style painting (1680–1690) from the National Museum, New Delhi, shows the killing of the demon Shaktasura by baby Krishna. The composition is compartmentalised, narrating multiple scenes in one frame—festivities at Nanda and Yashoda’s house, people singing, dancing, cooking, and the couple donating cows. Women are seen protecting Krishna from the evil eye, and the story ends with Krishna toppling the cart to kill Shaktasura. It is a fine example of narrative storytelling in traditional Indian miniature art.
Maru Ragini
A notable Ragamala painting from Mewar, titled Maru Ragini, holds great significance as it includes rare documentary details about its artist, patron, place, and date. Now in the National Museum, New Delhi, the painting’s inscription states it was made in 1628 CE (Samvat 1685) during the reign of Rana Jagat Singh in Udaipur, by the artist Sahibdin, referred to as chitara (painter). The work beautifully blends visual art with written verse, portraying Maru as the consort of Raga Shri, inspired by the popular Dhola-Maru ballad from local folklore. The scene shows Dhola and Maru escaping on a camel, reflecting themes of love, struggle, and reunion.
Raja Aniruddha Singh Hara
Aniruddha Singh (1682–1702) succeeded Bhao Singh, and a few notable paintings from his period have survived. One remarkable work is the equestrian portrait of Aniruddha Singh, painted in 1680 by artist Tulchi Ram, now housed in the National Museum, New Delhi. The painting captures a galloping horse mid-air, with no ground visible, effectively conveying motion and speed. This transforms a still portrait into a dynamic narrative. While the back inscription mentions Tulchi Ram and Kanwar Aniruddha Singh, the front bears the name Bharat Singh, leading to scholarly debate. Most believe it depicts young Aniruddha Singh before his coronation.
Chaugan Players
This 1810 painting by artist Dana, housed in the National Museum, New Delhi, depicts a princess playing Polo (Chaugan) with her companions and reflects the Jodhpur style during Man Singh’s reign. Though possibly not from the main court, it shows a fusion of styles—Mughal (female figures), Deccani (horses), Bundi and Kishangarh (facial features), and a flat green background, indicating indigenous preferences. An inscription on the top reads, "beautiful maidens on horsebacks, playing," capturing the elegance and activity of the scene.
Krishna Swinging and Radha in Sad Mood
This Rasikapriya painting, made in 1683 by artist Nuruddin in the Bikaner court, is notable for including both the artist's name and date. Now in the National Museum, New Delhi, it features a simple yet expressive composition with minimal architecture and landscape. A central soft mound divides the scene into two—a palace setting at the top where Krishna sits on a swing with a Gopi, and a pastoral landscape below, where a heartbroken Radha sits alone under a tree. The story flows from indoors to outdoors, showing Radha’s sorrow, Krishna’s guilt, and a sakhi acting as a messenger, urging Krishna to make peace with Radha.
