The Mughal School of Miniature Painting Notes in English Class 12 Fine Art Chapter-3 Book-1

Mughal painting is a type of small and detailed painting that began in northern India in the 1500s and lasted till the 1800s. It is famous for its fine work and different types of subjects like kings, nature, and daily life. This style became very popular and influenced many other Indian painting styles. The Mughal emperors loved art and supported many forms like painting, writing, building, and decorating books. Each Mughal ruler had his own liking and helped art grow in his time. They gave importance to artists and helped create new painting styles. To understand Mughal painting better, we also need to learn about the history and family of the Mughal kings.

Influences on Mughal Painting

1. Fusion of Cultures and Styles

The Mughal miniature painting style blended Indian (indigenous) themes with Persian and later European influences, resulting in a unique and rich fusion of diverse artistic traditions.

2. Blend of Aesthetics

At its peak, Mughal painting showcased a refined blend of Islamic styles, Hindu elements, and European visual features, making it more advanced than the traditional Indian or Iranian paintings of that era.

3. Role of Patrons and Artists

Mughal rulers actively supported the arts, bringing together skilled artists from India and Iran whose combined talents elevated the quality and sophistication of Mughal painting.

4. Influence of Workshops (Ateliers)

The Mughal courts established formal art workshops and invited artists from Iran, especially in the early years, resulting in a harmonious blend of Indo-Iranian artistic styles.

5. Historical Roots

Indian art had a rich tradition even before the Mughals. The Mughal style evolved through interaction with pre-Mughal Indian schools, contemporary Persian styles, and various regional Indian art forms.

6. Inclusive and Evolving Style

Mughal painting evolved through continuous interaction with other styles, absorbing diverse ideas rather than developing in isolation.

7. Diversity in Themes

Mughal emperors greatly influenced the subjects of paintings, such as royal portraits, court scenes, nature, animals, and religious or literary themes, with each ruler adding his own taste and philosophy to the art.

8. Chronological Growth

The Mughal painting style evolved gradually over time, and the next section will explore its development in historical sequence. 

Early Mughal Painting

1. Babur (1526–1530) – Foundation of Mughal Art

Babur, originally from Uzbekistan and a descendant of Timur and Chaghtai Turks, brought with him Persian and Central Asian aesthetic sensibilities. He was a patron of art, calligraphy, architecture, and gardens. In his autobiography, Baburnama, he described Indian nature and showed interest in portraiture. Notable artists during his time included Bihzad, a Persian master known for his use of colour and distinct drawings of beards and double chins, and Shah Muzaffar, skilled in depicting hairstyles. Babur's reign marked the beginning of memoir writing and laid the foundation for artistic appreciation in the Mughal era.

2. Humayun (1530–1540, 1555–56) – Persian Artistic Influence

After being defeated by Sher Shah, Humayun took refuge in the Persian court of Shah Tahmasp, where he was deeply influenced by Persian miniature art. He later established an atelier in Kabul in 1545 and invited renowned Persian artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad to India. Humayun founded the Nigaar Khana (Painting Studio) and initiated the grand Hamza Nama project, which was later continued by his son Akbar. An example of the early Mughal style under his influence is Princes of the House of Timur, which reflects a Persian format and colour palette.

3. Akbar (1556–1605) – Formalisation & Expansion

Akbar employed over 100 artists from both Persian and Indian backgrounds, fostering a rich artistic collaboration. He initiated major projects like the Hamza Nama (with 1400 illustrations across 14 volumes over 15 years), Razm Nama (a Persian translation of the Mahabharata, illustrated by Daswant), Ramayana (translated into Persian), and Akbar Nama, which was both historical and autobiographical. Akbar introduced large-scale workshops and the practice of illustrating texts, focusing on secular, mythological, and historical themes. His style merged Indo-Persian traditions with depictions of Indian nature and European elements, as seen in paintings like Madonna and Child (1580). He emphasized collaborative teamwork in the artistic process.

4. Jahangir (1605–1627) – Naturalism and Precision

Jahangir was known for bringing scientific precision and refinement to Mughal painting, especially in portraiture and studies of flora and fauna. He reduced the volume of artwork but focused on enhancing quality by promoting individual master artists. Jahangir popularised Muraqqas—album-style paintings with ornate golden floral borders. Notable artists under his patronage included Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, and Bichitra. Common themes were realistic portraits, court scenes, and detailed nature studies. Fascinated by European art, Jahangir welcomed gifts from Jesuits and English envoys. Famous works include Jahangir in Darbar (depicting courtly hierarchy), Jahangir’s Dream (a symbolic embrace with Shah Abbas), and Jahangir on Hourglass Throne (representing time, status, and spirituality).

5. Shah Jahan (1628–1658) – Stylisation and Grandeur

Shah Jahan emphasized idealization, symmetry, and aesthetic beauty in Mughal art. He preferred jewel-like colours, intricate detailing, and poetic symbolism. One of his major commissions was the Padshahnama, a lavishly illustrated royal chronicle. The themes during his reign focused on majestic portraits, royal splendour, and mystical subjects. His refined artistic taste even inspired European artists like Rembrandt, who studied and admired Mughal paintings.

6. Dara Shikoh – Philosophical Patron

Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was a liberal, scholarly prince with deep Sufi and Vedantic leanings. He was a patron of multilingual art and manuscripts, promoting spiritual and intellectual synthesis. His painting Dara with Sages in a Garden (1635) reflects his love for spiritual wisdom. He commissioned several art albums and often gifted artworks to his wife. However, his cultural contributions were cut short when he was defeated in the war of succession by his brother Aurangzeb.

7. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) – Decline in Patronage

Aurangzeb focused on military expansion and upheld strict Islamic orthodoxy, leading to a decline in royal patronage of the arts. While he did not actively support painting, the imperial atelier was not immediately shut down, and some artworks continued to be produced, maintaining traditional Mughal excellence.

Later Mughal Painting

As Mughal royal support declined, many skilled artists left the imperial workshops and joined provincial rulers who tried to copy Mughal court life in their paintings. Though a few fine works were made during the reigns of Muhammad Shah Rangila, Shah Alam II, and Bahadur Shah Zafar, they were the last signs of the fading Mughal painting style. Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, was exiled by the British after the 1857 Revolt to prevent any claim to Mughal power. He was also a poet and art lover. With the rise of British rule and unstable regional kingdoms, artists adapted to new patrons and styles. Over time, Mughal painting merged into Provincial and Company School styles.

Process of Mughal Painting

Most Mughal miniature paintings were made as part of royal manuscripts and albums, where pictures and text were placed together. To create these book paintings, handmade paper was prepared and cut to the required size. Space was left for the artwork, and the rest was filled with text. After writing the text, artists added matching visuals. The painting process included making the composition (tarh), drawing portraits (chiharanama), and finally coloring it (rangamizi).

Colours and Technique of Mughal Painting

Mughal painters were also skilled in making their own colors using natural materials. Paintings were done on special handmade paper with opaque colors made by grinding pigments like cinnabar (vermilion), lapis lazuli (ultramarine), orpiment (yellow), shells (white), and charcoal (black). Gold and silver powders were added for richness. Brushes were made from squirrel or kitten hair. Painting was often a team effort in royal workshops—some artists drew outlines, others filled colors or added details. Artists were paid based on their work, and top painters held respected positions. Once finished, the painting was polished with agate to set colors and add shine.

Project for Students

Select around five quotations from a writer, poet or philosopher. Translate them into the language of your choice. Create a manuscript with your translation in a calligraphic style and ornate borders, drawing inspiration from the Mughal manuscripts.

Noah’s Ark

Noah’s Ark, a 1590 painting from a Divan-i Hafiz manuscript, is attributed to Miskin, a master artist in Akbar’s court. It shows Prophet Noah in the ark with pairs of animals, while his sons are seen throwing Iblis (the devil) out to protect the ark. The artwork uses soft shades of white, red, blue, and yellow, with realistic water and a dramatic vertical perspective. This painting is housed in the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., USA.

Krishna lifts Mount Govardhan

Krishna Lifts Mount Govardhan is a painting by Miskin (1585–90) from the Harivamsa Purana and is kept at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The Harivamsa Purana, originally in Sanskrit, was translated into Persian during Akbar’s rule by Badauni, a scholar known for his orthodox views. The painting shows Lord Krishna (Hari) lifting Mount Govardhan like a giant umbrella to protect villagers and animals from heavy rain sent by God Indra. The scene highlights Krishna’s divine power and love for his followers. 

Falcon on a Bird Rest

This painting, Falcon Perched on a Bird Rest (1615), was made by Ustad Mansur, a famous Mughal artist who was given the title Nadir ul Asr by Emperor Jahangir. Jahangir, a great lover of art and nature, collected rare falcons and had them painted for his biography, Jahangirnama. One such falcon was a gift from the Persian emperor Shah Abbas, but it was sadly killed by a cat. Jahangir asked his painters to paint the dead falcon to preserve its memory. This artwork is now kept in the Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, USA.

Zebra

This painting shows a zebra from Ethiopia, which was brought by the Turks and gifted to Emperor Jahangir by his nobleman Mir Ja’far during the Nowruz festival in March 1621. Jahangir carefully examined the animal, as some believed it was a horse painted with stripes. He confirmed it was real and later sent it as a gift to Shah Abbas of Iran, with whom he often exchanged rare animals. The painting was made by Ustad Mansur, also known as Nadir ul Asr, and Jahangir himself wrote about it in Persian. Later, the painting was added to Shah Jahan’s royal album, and the decorative borders were added during his reign.

The Marriage Procession of Dara Shikoh

This painting by Haji Madni belongs to the reign of Shah Jahan, the emperor who built the Taj Mahal. It depicts the grand marriage procession of his eldest son, Dara Shikoh. Dara is shown riding a brown horse, wearing a traditional sehra, while Shah Jahan, with a glowing halo around his head, rides a white horse beside him. The scene is full of celebration, with music, dance, fireworks, and gift-giving, capturing the royal pomp and splendour. This artwork is preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi.