Kinship Caste and Class Notes in English Class 12 History Chapter-3 Book-Themes in Indian History-I

 Chapter - 3

Fraternity, race and class

Many political , social and economic changes took place in the period 600 BC to 600 AD and historians used literary traditions to understand the impact of these changes on the society at that time. They tried to understand social behaviour , customs and ideas through the texts. One of the richest texts for information about the Indian subcontinent is the Mahabharata. 

Mahabharata Granth 

• Mahabharata is the world's greatest epic .

• There are more than one lakh verses in Mahabharata .

• Its old name was Jai Samhita .

• It is one of the richest texts of India .

• Mahabharata was being composed for 1000 years . ( around 500 BC)

• From Mahabharata we get information about the condition of the society and social rules of that time .

• Some of the stories included in the Mahabharata were popular even before this period .

• Mahabharata depicts the war between two families .

Critical edition

Mahabharata	Mahabharata
मूल कथा के रचयिता	Critical Edition of Mahabharata
Bhaat Charioteer	V.S.Sunthakar

1. Critique  :  To look at carefully , analyse.

• review

• to judge the merits and demerits

• observe

2. V.S. Sunthakar

• V.S. Sunthakar - An ambitious project was started in 1919 under the leadership of Sanskrit scholar, in which many scholars together took the responsibility of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata book.

• For this project, Sanskrit manuscripts of Mahabharata written in different scripts from different parts of the country were collected .

• The verses found in the manuscripts were studied and a method was devised to compare those verses. The scholars selected such verses which were available in almost all the manuscripts.

• These were published in several parts spread over 13000 pages . It took 47 years to complete this project . After the completion of this entire project two things came to light.

1. First -  Similarities were found in all the manuscripts from Kashmir and Nepal in North India to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in South India. 

2. Second  - Many regional variations appeared in the transmission of Mahabharata during the first few centuries  , these variants were compiled in the form of commentaries and appendixes to the main text.  More than half of the 13000  pages contain information on these variants. 

Rules and practices of sisterhood and marriage 

1. Family Importance 

• Family was an important institution of the society. In Sanskrit texts the word Kul is used for family .

• Not all families are the same. The number of members , their relationship with each other , and their activities may be different in different families .

• People of the same family used to share food and other resources among themselves . People used to live together in their families.

• The family was part of a larger group, called relatives , and the term caste group is also used for them .

• In some families, blood relation is considered with cousins , maternal and paternal brothers and sisters but this was not the case in all societies.

2. Patrilineal System

• Patrilineal is a social system in which men are given more importance in society.

• In this tradition, the head of the household is a man, and he has more power.

• In patrilineal inheritance, sons could inherit their father's property , resources and throne after his death .

• Most of the dynasties followed the patrilineal system; if there was no son, then a brother or other relative could also be made the successor.

• Under certain special circumstances, women could also be given power.

• A good example of this is found in the Mahabharata.

 Mahabharata War: - 

• The Kuru dynasty ruled over a district. There was a war between the Kurus and the Pandavas over land and power. The Pandavas won the war and after this, paternal succession was declared.      

3. Rules of marriage

• In the patrilineal society, the daughter did not have rights over the resources of the father. It was considered an important religious duty of the father to get her married at the right time and to the right person . Kanyadan means giving gifts to the daughter at the time of marriage.  

• With the development of new cities, there was a change in the initial beliefs and practices, due to which codes of conduct were prepared by Brahmin writers, which had to be followed by Brahmins and the rest of the society. The most important among these was Manu Smriti ( 200 BC to 200 AD)  

• Dharmasutra and Dharmashastra mention eight types of marriages, out of which the first four were considered ' best ' and the rest were considered condemnable .  

      Marriage System :-

1. Exogamy system 

• The practice of marrying outside the clan.

2. Endogamy System 

• Marriage within the same clan, one tribe, one caste or people living in the same place.

3. Polygamy 

• Having more than one husband.

4. Polygamy 

• It was considered right to have more than one wife and marry outside one's clan.

4. Gotra and woman's Gotra  

• Gotra is an ancient Brahmin system which came into practice after about 1000 BC, under which people were classified into gotras.  

• Each Gotra was named after a Vedic sage and members of that Gotra were considered descendants of the sage .  

     Two important rules of Gotra: -

1. After marriage, a woman had to change her father's gotra and adopt her husband's gotra. 

2. Members of one gotra could not marry each other. 

5. Did everyone follow these rules ?

• After studying the records of the Satavahana rulers, historians proved that these rulers did not follow the Brahmin Gotra system .  

• When historians analysed the names of the wives of the Satavahana kings, it was found that their names originated from Gautama and Vasishtha gotras which were their father's gotra. This shows that even after marriage, they did not adopt their husband's gotra. Some queens were from the same gotra which was against the rules of exogamy.  

• In some communities in South India , the system of endogamy was also followed, under which marriages took place between relatives such as cousins , maternal uncles , brothers and sisters. This shows that there were variations in the observance of rules in different parts of the subcontinent.

6. Importance of Mothers

• Mothers were important among the Satavahana kings, but the society remained patrilineal. 

• Some kings ruled their kingdoms in the name of their mothers, such as Gotami Putra Satakani.

Differences in society (inequality)

1. According to Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras, rules of ideal livelihood have been made for all the four varnas. 

1. Brahmin

• Studying , teaching the Vedas , performing and getting yagya done, giving and taking donations.

2. Kshatriya

• To rule , to fight , to provide security to the people , to do justice , to read the Vedas , to perform yagya , to give donations.

3. Vaishya

• Agriculture , animal husbandry , cow rearing , business , reading Vedas , performing yagya , giving donations.

4. Shudra 

• Service to all three castes.

Brahmins believed that the origin of the Varna system was a divine arrangement. Brahmins used to preach to rulers that they should ensure that the rules of this system were followed in their states. Brahmins tried to make people believe that their prestige was based on birth.

2. Were Kshatriyas always the kings ?

• According to the scriptures only Kshatriyas could be kings , but in reality there have been many rulers who were not Kshatriyas but were still kings.

1. Chandragupta Maurya 

• He was the founder of Maurya dynasty. In Buddhist texts he has been described as a Kshatriya and in Brahmin texts he has been described as the ruler of a lower caste .    

2. Sunga and Kavan 

• The successors of Maurya were Brahmins . 

3. Shaka rulers 

• They came from Central Asia and were considered barbarians and foreigners . 

4. Satavahana ruler   

• The Satavahana ruler Gautami son of Siri Satakani described himself as a unique Brahmin and Kshatriyas .   

• While according to the Brahmin texts only a Kshatriya could become a king, they claimed to maintain the dignity of the four varnas but also followed the system of inter-marriage, thus proving that it was not always the Kshatriyas who could enjoy political power. The person who could gather support and resources could become a ruler .

3. Caste and social mobility 

• Castes were based on birth , the number of varnas was four but there was no fixed number of castes .

• When the Brahmin system (caste system) faced some new communities which could not be included in the system of four varnas, they were divided into castes like Nishad , Suvarnkar etc. People belonging to the same caste used to do similar work for their livelihood.  

• The subcontinent was full of diversity. There also lived communities who did not believe in the Brahmin system. In Sanskrit literature, such communities are depicted as strange , uncivilized , barbaric and wild. Example – People living in forests, people who hunted and collected roots and tubers, Nishad class – Ekalavya also belonged to this class.

• Nomadic cattle herders were also considered to be of the same kind. Those who did not speak Sanskrit were looked down upon and called 'Mleccha' (Muslims ).

4. Subordination beyond the four varnas

• The Brahmin class considered some people to be outside the social system of the caste system. The Brahmins declared some sections of the society as untouchables. The Brahmins believed that some deeds are pure and some deeds are impure. Pure - Yagna , rituals , study of Vedas etc. Impure - related to leather , lifting of dead bodies , funeral!

   

1. Chandala

• Those who touched dead animals were called Chandalas . Chandalas were placed at the lowest level in the caste system of society. The Brahmins considered it impure to even touch or look at a Chandala .

     

2. Status of Chandalas in Manusmriti 

• Chandalas had to live outside the village , they used discarded utensils , wore clothes of dead people and iron ornaments , were not allowed to walk in the village or town at night , had to perform the last rites of dead people and worked as hunters .

     

3. Sources of information about Chandalas 

1. According to the Chinese Buddhist monk - Fa-Xian, untouchables had to play cymbals while walking on the streets to avoid the sin of other people looking at them .

2. According to Chinese traveller Xuanzang, hunters and cleaners lived outside the city .

rights to property

1. Different rights of men and women on property (gender basis)

According to Manusmiriti: -

• The father's property should be divided equally among all the sons after the death of the parents , but the eldest son was entitled to a special share.

• A woman could not demand a share in her father's property. A woman had the right over the gifts received at the time of marriage. This was called Stridhan. Her husband had no right over this. But according to Manusmriti, women were warned against accumulating wealth secretly against the orders of their husbands .

• Some evidence has been found related to Prabhavati Gupta which shows that Prabhavati Gupta had control over resources. This may have happened in some families but generally men had control over land , animals and wealth.

2. Varna and property rights

According to Brahmanical texts

• Another basis for ownership of property was caste; the only means of livelihood for Shudras was to serve the three higher castes.

• Men of the three higher varnas had the possibility of choosing different types of occupations. The position of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas in society was mostly prosperous.

• The caste system is justified in the Brahmin texts Dharma Sutra and Dharma Shastra.

• But the caste system has been criticized in Buddhism. Buddhists have rejected social status based on birth.

3. Participation in an alternative social framework asset

• In society, it is not always the person who has more wealth who is respected ; rather, a person who is charitable and kind is considered a respected person .

• The person who accumulated wealth for himself was despised.

• In the Tamilakam region in the south of India, chieftaincies like Chola , Chera and Pandya came into existence. These kingdoms were quite prosperous. The Sangam literature found in the Tamil language depicts social and economic relations . There was definitely a disparity between the rich and the poor .

• But rich people were expected to share their resources and use them together.

a social contract

The concept of Buddhism

• There is a myth described in the book named Suttapitaka that in the beginning, the human and plant worlds were not developed. All the creatures lived in a peaceful manner and consumed from nature only as much food as was required for one time.    

• But gradually this system started to end, man became greedy and deceitful , evils started spreading in the society.

• In such a situation, people thought of electing such a person who gets angry on right things , who punishes such people who torture others .

• In return for this work, all of us will together give a share of rice. Since he will be selected with the consent of all the people, he will receive the title of Mahasammat .

• In return for this service of the king, the public used to pay him tax. This shows that if humans themselves were responsible for maintaining a system, then they could also change it in the future.

Use of literary sources - historians and the Mahabharata

1.  What aspects do historians consider while analysing a text ?

1.  Language of the text

• Historians pay special attention to the language of the text, in which language the text is written such as -

1. Pali, Prakrit or Tamil - language of common people.

2. Sanskrit- Language of priests and special class.

2. Types of texts 

• Historians pay attention to the type of text, there can be many types of texts such as -

1. Katha Granth or Mantra Granth Katha - which people could read and listen to.

2. Mantras - recited and chanted by the performer during the ritual.

3. Author's point of view

• Historians pay special attention to authors. Which author has written which book, what is the viewpoint of that author.

4. Audience 

• Historians pay special attention to authors. Which author has written which book. What is the viewpoint of that author. Historians also pay attention to the audience of the book because any book is written keeping in mind the interest of the listeners.

5. Period of composition 

• Historians also keep in mind the period of the text, in which period the text was written and what was the social condition of that time.

6. Rachna Bhoomi 

• The background of the text is also taken into consideration, that is, where it is written.

Only after analysing all these things with special attention, historians use the content of a book to reconstruct history.

2. Language and Content

• The text of Mahabharata that we are using is in Sanskrit language. The Sanskrit language of Mahabharata is much simpler than the Sanskrit language of Vedas and prashastis. Due to its simplicity in language, it was easily understood on a wide scale.

Mahabharata	Mahabharata
Narrative	Didactic
story collection	social norms of conduct

• Most historians agree that the Mahabharata text was in part a dramatic narrative (essence , story, script) with didactic parts added later.

3. Authors one or more and dates

• In the literary tradition, Sage Vyas is considered the author of Mahabharata.

• The original story of Mahabharata was composed by Bhaat charioteer, he was called Sut

• He used to go to the battlefield along with the Kshatriya warriors and write poems about their victory stories and achievements .

• These works were transmitted orally, but from the fifth century BCE onwards, the Brahmins took over this narrative tradition and gave it a written form .

• Between approximately 200 BC and 200 AD , another phase of the Mahabharata's composition period was seen. At this time, Lord Vishnu was being worshipped more and Shri Krishna was being described as an incarnation of Vishnu.

• Later, between approximately 200 and 400 AD, didactic topics similar to Manusmriti were added to the Mahabharata.

• Initially this text consisted of less than 10,000 verses but gradually the number of verses increased and it became one lakh verses .

4. Search for analogies

1.   B.B. Lal 

Like other texts, Mahabharata also has a vivid description of war , forest , palace , settlement etc. In 1951-52 , archaeologist B.B. Lal carried out excavation work in Hastinapur village of Meerut ( present-day Uttar Pradesh). It is possible that this place could be Hastinapur, the capital of Kurus , which is described in Mahabharata. B.B. Lal found evidence of five levels of population in the area , of which the second and third levels are important.  

 

   Second Level 

• B.B. Lal writes about the houses found in the second level,   " No definite project of building houses has been found in the area excavated, but mud walls and mud walls have been found. " Mud plaster with impressions of reeds has been discovered. This indicates that some of the houses were built of reeds and mud plaster was applied on top of them.  

  third level

• The houses were made of unbaked bricks and some of baked bricks . Brick drains were made for the drainage of dirty water from the houses. Evidence of wells has also been found .  Both the well and the pit for the drainage of faeces were used.

2. Challenging the narrative

• The most challenging story of the Mahabharata text is the marriage of the five Pandavas with Draupadi .

• From this it is inferred that the practice of polyandry must have existed at that time.

• With time the practice of polyandry became invalid among Brahmins but this practice is still prevalent in the Himalayan region.

• It is believed that the practice of polyandry was adopted due to the shortage of women at that time.

A dynamic text

• Mahabharata is called a dynamic text because it was being composed for a thousand years and new episodes kept getting added to it .

• The evolution of the Mahabharata did not end with the Sanskrit text alone , but over the centuries , parts of the epic were written in different languages .

• Many stories which originated in a particular region were incorporated in this epic.

• Its events were also depicted in sculptures and paintings .

• In this, subject matter has also been provided for drama and dance arts .

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