Kings, Farmers and Towns Notes in English Class 12 History chapter-2 Book-Themes in Indian History-I

 

Chapter - 2
Kings, Farmers and Cities

After the fall of the Harappan civilization , a new civilization emerged on the banks of the Indus River and its tributaries in ancient Indian history which was called the Vedic civilization. During this time, many changes took place in the Indian subcontinent and many of its results are visible between   600  BC and 600  AD.   

 

 Some important chronologies

Harappan Civilization	2600 - 1900 BC
Vedic Civilization	1500 - 600 BC
Rigvedic Period	1500 - 1000 BC
Late Vedic Period	1000 - 600 BC
Nanda Dynasty	344 – 321 BC
Naga Dynasty	412 – 344 BC
Haryanka dynasty	544 – 412 BC
Founder of the Nanda dynasty	Mahapadmananda
The last ruler of the Nanda dynasty	Dhanananda

1.    Vedic civilization

1. Vedic civilization came into existence after the Harappan civilization.

2. Vedic civilization was the civilization settled by the Aryans.

3. It was a rural civilization.

4. Its period has been determined as 1500 – 600 BC.

5. The language of the Aryans was Sanskrit.

6. Rigveda was written at this time.

 

2.  Beginning of a new political history 

• James Prinsep, an East India Company official, deciphered the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts in  the 1830s , which were used in early inscriptions and coins .          

• James Prinsep discovered that most of the inscriptions and coins have the name Piyadassi written on them ,  Piyadassi means the king with a beautiful face ,  in some inscriptions the name of the king is also found written as Ashoka    .      

• According to Buddhist texts, Ashoka was the most famous ruler.  

 

3.    Records:-

• The writings engraved on stone , metal and clay are called inscriptions ; the study of inscriptions is called epigraphy .       

• The people who got the records made, used to write down the achievements of those people, the work done by them and their thoughts in them.      

• Most of the inscriptions give details of the activities of the kings ,  their conquests and donations made to religious institutions .    

• The date of their creation is also mentioned in some of the records. The earliest records were written in Prakrit languages ,  which were the language of the common people.     

• Apart from this, words from languages ​​like Tamil ,  Pali ,  Sanskrit have also been found in the inscriptions.  

 

Early states and polity 

1.    District 

• District - Jan + Pad = meaning the area where people come and settle, it is the area where people reside.    

2.    Mahajanapadas

• About 2500 years ago many Janapadas became more important and they came to be known as Mahajanapadas.

• Most mahajanapadas had a capital, which was fortified and the fortified capital was maintained by the military and bureaucrats.

• Most Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings but groups of people ruled over states known as Gana (groups with many members) and Sangha (organisation or assembly).

3.    Sixteen Mahajanapadas 

• Sixteen Mahajanapadas are also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain religious texts: Magadha, Gandhara, Vajji, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Avanti.

• The names of these Mahajanapadas are found many times. Lord Mahavir and Lord Buddha belonged to these Gana.

4.    Changes in the 6th century BC

• The Rise of the Early States.

• The rise of cities.

• Increasing use of iron.

• Evolution of coins.

• Development of Buddhist and Jain philosophical schools of thought.

• Composition of texts called Dharmashastras by Brahmins.

• According to religious scriptures, only Kshatriyas could become kings. The king's job was to collect taxes and gifts from farmers, traders and craftsmen.

• Gradually some states started creating their own permanent army and bureaucratic system.

 

5.  First among the sixteen Mahajanapadas: Magadha 

Magadha is located in the state of Bihar. Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada from the 6th to the 4th centuries BCE.  

There were many reasons behind its being powerful.  :- 

• The land was fertile which produced good crops.

• Iron mines were available ,  it was easy to make tools and weapons from iron.

• Elephants were available in the forests ,  elephants were included in the army.

• Travel through the Ganga and its tributaries was easy and cheap ,  and Magadha was naturally safe.

• Magadha had capable and powerful rulers like Bimbisara ,  Ajatasattu , Mahapadmananda , Magadha was so prosperous due to the good policies of these rulers.    

• Initially Rajgarh was the capital of Magadha but in the 4th century BC Pataliputra was made its capital.

 

Mauryan Empire 321-185 BC 

• Dhanananda was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya and the Maurya Empire was established.     

• Chandragupta Maurya's guru Chanakya helped Chandragupta Maurya. Chanakya is also known as Vishnugupta and Kautilya. He has written a book called Arthashastra .       

• Mauryan rule extended to Afghanistan and Balochistan in the northwest .  

 

1.     Sources of information on the Maurya Empire

Literary sources	Archaeological sources
Buddhist and Jain literature , Arthashastra ,  Indica    Puranas ,  Mudrarakshasa , Brahmin texts	Ancient buildings ,  stupa buildings ,  caves ,  pottery   Inscriptions ,  Records of Asoka ,  Sculpture

 

2.    Administration in the Maurya Empire 

The Maurya Empire had five major political centres: one capital and four provincial centres.

• Capital-  Pataliputra  (Patna)

Four Provincial Centres  –

1.     Taxila

2.     Ujjaini

3.     Tosli

4.     golden kernel

 

• According to Ashoka's records, similar messages have been found engraved everywhere from the northwest of Pakistan to Andhra Pradesh ,  Orissa and  Uttaranchal .   

• Both Takshashila and Ujjain were located on an important long-distance trade route , through Swarnagari in Karnataka.   

• For the proper functioning of the empire, there was constant movement through both land and river routes .  

• It would have taken several weeks or months to travel from the capital to the province; in such a situation arrangements would have been made for rest and food for the travellers and the task of security was entrusted to the army.    

 

3.     Army

• According to Megasthenes – There was a committee and six sub-committees for military activities. The Maurya Empire had a large army.

 

First Committee	Naval operations
Second Committee	transport ,  food and drink management
Third Committee	Operation of infantry troops
Fourth Committee	Horseman
Fifth Committee	Charioteer
Sixth Committee	Handling of elephants

Other subcommittees

• Arranging bullock cart for carrying the equipment . 

• To arrange food for the soldiers .  

• Arranging fodder for animals .  

• Appointing servants to look after the soldiers .  

 

4.     Ashoka's Dhamma

• Ashoka established some rules in administration which were called Ashoka's Dhamma, according to which through Dhamma the life of people will be good in this world and in the world after this.    

• Why was an officer named Dhamma Mahamat appointed to propagate Dhamma ?  

 

Characteristics of Ashoka's Dhamma: - 

1. Respect elders ,  speak the truth. 

2. Behave properly with those younger than you.

3. Policy of sympathy towards learned Brahmins.

4.  Message of non-violence ,  respect for all religions. 

5.  To be kind to slaves and servants.

 

5.  Importance of the Maurya Empire

• In the 19th  century , when historians started writing the early history of India, the Maurya Empire was considered the main period of history because for the first time a   united India was created by Chandragupta Maurya          

• The sculpture of the Mauryan period was commendable .  

• The rulers of the Maurya period did not add big titles to their names.  

• Historians considered Ashoka as a great emperor ,  Ashoka was considered a source of inspiration for nationalist historians .     

• The Maurya Empire lasted only for 150  years but it is considered important in Indian history.    

 

Rajdharma and new principles 

1.    Kings and chieftains of the South

• Some chieftains emerged in the south of India - Tamilnadu ,  Andhra Pradesh ,  Kerala. Chieftaincies like Chola ,  Chera and Pandya came into existence in the Tamilakam region . These kingdoms were quite prosperous.     

• Sardar is a powerful person. The post of Sardar may or may not be hereditary. Supporters of Sardar were his family members.  

Functions of Sardar :- 

• Conducting the ritual.

• Leading the war.

• Resolving fights ,  quarrels and  disputes .  

• The leader takes gifts from his subordinates and distributes them among his supporters.   

• There is no permanent army or officials in the chiefdom .  

• Information about these kingdoms comes from the ancient Tamil Sangam texts , which contain details about the chieftains.   

• Many chieftains and kings also collected revenue from long distance trade , prominent among them being the Satavahana and Shaka kings.     

 

2.  The Divine King

• One way that kings achieved higher status was by connecting with the gods.  

• Kushan kings who ruled from Central Asia to western North India.   

• These rulers installed their huge statues in the temples.  

• Perhaps he wanted to show himself as god-like .  

• The Kushan king also used the title of Devaputra before his name .   

• The coins of the Kushan period also had a picture of a king on one side and a deity on the other .   

• A huge statue of a Kushan king has been found at a temple in Maat near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh .   

• A similar statue has also been found at a temple in Afghanistan . 

 

3.  Secret Empire

• After the Maurya period, the Gupta period is called the golden age of India . 

• The Gupta Empire was founded by Shrigupta around 275  AD .   

• The official language of the Gupta period was Sanskrit.  

• In the Gupta period, most of the coins were made of gold. The history of the Gupta Empire has been written with the help of information from literary sources ,  coins and inscriptions .       

• The prashasti written by poets in praise of their king in the Gupta Empire is also a historical source. For example - Prayag Prashasti was composed by Harishena, the court poet of Samudra Gupta. It was written in Sanskrit language .           

 

Changes in rural society 

1.  The image of the king in public

• There is no evidence of what the public thought about the king. In such a situation, historians tried to find out by reviewing the stories given in texts like Jataka and Panchatantra .  Jataka tales were written in the Pali language in the middle of the first millennium AD.   

• Example  -  The story Gandhtindu Jataka tells how the subjects of a wicked king are suffering because of him . It includes old men and women , farmers ,  cattle herders ,  village children ,  and even animals .        

• When the king changed his identity and went among his subjects to find out what people thought about him, everyone started speaking ill of him. People complained that bandits attack people at night and the king's officers collect taxes and rob them during the day. That is why people left their villages and settled in the forests .        

 

2.  Ways to increase yield

• Using a plough with iron blades . 

• Irrigation through wells ,  ponds and canals . 

• Using hoe for farming in mountainous areas .  

• The cultivation of rice in the Ganges valley increased the yield. 

 

3.  Variations in rural society

• After adopting new agricultural technology, the yield definitely increased but it did not benefit everybody ;  the differences among people associated with farming kept on increasing.  

• Landless farmers , labourers and landlords are mentioned in Buddhist stories .   

• In the Pali language the word Gahapati was used for small farmers and landowners. 

• Big landlords and village headmen were powerful and they had control over the farmers . The post of village headman was hereditary.    

• The Gahapati was the head of the house and controlled the women ,  children ,  servants and slaves living in the house. He was the owner of the land ,  animals and all other things associated with the house .  

• Sometimes this word is also used for the elite people and businessmen living in cities.  

• The early Tamil Sangam literature also mentions various classes of people living in the villages such as  the  Vellalars or large landholders    (  Vellalar  -  agricultural occupation), the ploughmen or Ulvar and the slaves or Animai .    

 

4.  Land grants and new rural elites

• Evidence of land donations has been found from the early centuries of the Christian era . Land donations are mentioned in many inscriptions. Some inscriptions were written on stones , and most of the land donations are engraved on copper plates.     

• The early records were in the Sanskrit language  ,  but after the 7th  century, records have also been found in Sanskrit ,  Tamil , Telugu languages .     

• The marriage of Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of the Gupta ruler Chandragupta II, took place in the Vakataka family of the Deccan. According to Sanskrit scriptures, women did not have the right to own land, but information has been received from the records that Prabhavati was the owner of land and Prabhavati also donated land, perhaps because she was a queen and it may also be possible that the scriptures are not applied equally everywhere .    

• Records of land donation have been found from many parts of the country. Different types of land have been donated in different areas. In some places very small amounts of land have been donated , while in some other places large amounts of land have been donated. Changes have also been observed in the rights of the people receiving the donation in different areas.    

 

There is a controversy among historians about the effect of land donation: - 

• Land grants were mostly given to Brahmins or religious institutions .  

• Some historians believe that the rulers wanted to encourage agriculture through land grants.  

• Some historians say that land grants are a sign that when political dominance weakened, kings used to do land grants to garner support.  

 

Cities and trade in the 6th century

1.  New Towns

• Most of the cities were the capitals of Mahajanapadas , most of the cities were located along the communication routes such as:- 

1.  Pataliputra (Patna) - on the river bank.  

2.  Ujjaini - Along the surface path.  

3.  Puhar - Along the sea coast.  

4.  Mathura- centre of business   ,   cultural and political activity.

 

2.  Urban population

• Different types of people lived in the cities , rulers lived in fortified cities, many ancient remains have been found from these areas like clay bowls and plates covered with shiny coating , ornaments , tools , weapons ,  utensils made of different materials like gold, silver , bronze  , copper, ivory , glass  etc.         

• By the second century AD, donation records were found from many cities . In these records, the name of the donor and his profession were also written.    

• These contain details of the washermen ,  weavers ,  carpenters ,  clerks ,  potters ,  goldsmiths, officials ,  religious leaders ,  traders and kings living in the cities .  

• There is also a mention of Shreni (class) ,  Shreni was the name given to the union of traders, these traders would buy raw material, make goods from it and sell them in the market.  

 

3.  Trade within the subcontinent and beyond 

• India has been trading with outside the subcontinent since ancient times ; we have found such evidence in the Harappan civilization as well.  

• As early as the sixth century BC, a network of waterways and land routes was established in the subcontinent.  

• Trade was conducted via the land route to Central Asia and beyond. Trade was conducted from the ports built on the coast through the Arabian Sea to North Africa ,  West Asia , through the Bay of Bengal to China and South East Asia .       

• The rulers controlled these trade routes and charged the traders money in exchange for protection. The traders travelling on these routes included those who travelled on foot, bullock carts and horses, and people also travelled by sea, which was dangerous but profitable.    

• Some famous successful traders were very rich  , these traders used to transport many goods like salt ,  cloth ,  grains ,  metal items , stone ,  wood , herbs etc. from one place to another.      

• Spices like pepper as well as clothes and herbs were in great demand in the Roman Empire . These items were transported to various regions via the Arabian Sea.   

 

4.  Coins and Kings

• Coins were used for trade . The use of coins made trade easier to a great extent. Silver and copper coins were first minted (6th century BC). These coins were called punch-marked coins.     

• Many such coins have been found during excavations at various sites .  Numismatists have studied these coins and discovered the areas of their commercial use . The symbols on the punch-marked coins indicate that they were issued by various kings. But it is also possible that wealthy people ,  traders and  citizens may also have issued some such coins .          

• The first coins with the image and name of the rulers were issued by the Indo-Greek rulers ;  a large number of Roman coins have been found in India.      

• Gold coins were first issued by the Kushan rulers in the first century AD. Such coins have been found in north and central India. Gold coins were probably used in the trade of precious goods.      

• Copper coins were also issued by Yaudheya rulers of regions like Punjab and Haryana     

• During the Gupta period some rulers issued magnificent gold coins. The gold in these coins was of very high quality.   

 

5.  Why did the availability of gold coins decrease in the 6th century AD ? 

• Some historians believe that the fall of the Roman Empire caused a decline in trade.  

• Some historians believe that new cities and new systems of trade emerged during this period.  

• Some historians believe that it was due to economic crisis .  

 

Understanding of records 

1.  How are records interpreted ? 

• To decipher the meaning of inscriptions, scholars study different scripts and compare ancient scripts with modern scripts.   

2.  Study of Brahmi script

• The origin of almost all the scripts used in all the modern languages ​​of India is Brahmi script .  

• Most of the inscriptions of Ashoka that have been found were in Brahmi script .  

• In the 18th  century, European scholars, with the help of Indian pundits, began studying many manuscripts in present-day Bengali and Devanagari scripts.    

• Their letters were compared with ancient letters .  Some scholars who studied the inscriptions had often assumed that these were written in Sanskrit, but they were actually written in Prakrit. Then, after several decades of hard work, James Prinsep deciphered the meaning of the inscriptions written in Brahmi script of Ashoka's period in 1838  .     

3.  Study of Kharosthi script  

• The names on the coins minted by the Indo-Greek kings were written in both Greek and Kharosthi, similar to the Kharosthi script used in inscriptions in the northwest .     

• European scholars who studied the Greek language read it by matching the letters.  

• Prinsep identified the language of the inscriptions written in Kharosthi as Prakrit, making it easier to read.

4.  Historical evidence obtained from inscriptions

• After examining the inscriptions the epigraphists found that the titles of Ashoka Devampriya  -  beloved of the gods ,   Priyadasi - beautiful to look at , king with pleasant facial features, have similarities in their themes ,  style ,  language and paleography which point to the same ruler Ashoka .         

• The statements written in the records have to be tested to find out whether what is written in them is  true or an exaggeration.

5.  Record evidence limit

• Letters lightly engraved.

• Destruction of records, disappearance of letters on records.

• Some records were not preserved.

• Lack of complete knowledge of the actual meaning of the words of the record.

• Lack of information about everyday life in the records. Lack of information.

 

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