Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Notes in English Class 12 History Chapter-4 Book-Themes in Indian History-I

Chapter - 4 

Thinkers, beliefs and buildings

Early Indian society in ancient history 600 BC to 600 AD witnessed many political , social and economic changes and new religious ideas and beliefs emerged , philosophers played a major role in this. This was the time of the influence of new ideas which were collected in oral and written traditions , along with this they also got recognition from architecture and sculptures. Prominent among these major traditions were Buddhism and Jainism and some new ideas also emerged in Brahmanical texts which created many debates and dialogues.   

 

background to the changes 

1. Yajna and dispute

• The period of the first millennium BC is considered a turning point in the history of the world. During this period some thinkers tried to understand the mystery of life and the relationship between humans and the world order, prominent among them were:

1. Iran - Zarathustra.

2. China - Khungtsi (Kong Ji).

3. Greece- Socrates , Plato , Aristotle.

4. India- Mahavira , Buddha.

• At the same time, new states and cities were emerging in the Ganga valley. Due to which many important changes were taking place in economic and social life . These thinkers also tried to understand the changing situation .

2. Tradition of Yajnas

• Many streams of religious beliefs , thoughts and behaviour have been going on since the ancient times . We get information about the pre-Vedic tradition from the Rigveda . A collection of praises of many gods like Agni , Som , Indra etc. is available in the Rigveda.  

     Why did people perform Yagya ?

• Initially, yagnas were performed collectively. But later some yagnas started being performed by the owners of the houses. Rajsuya Yagna and Ashvamedha Yagna were quite complex. These yagnas were performed by the chieftain or the king . For these yagnas, one had to depend on Brahmin priests . Main reasons for performing yagna.  

1. For cattle

2. For the son

3. For good health

4. For longevity

3. New social questions 

• The ideology found in the Upanishads shows that people were curious to get answers to the following questions. 

1. The meaning of life

2. Possibility of life after death

3. Reincarnation

4. Reincarnation's connection to past karma

4. New ideas , debates and discussions

1. Argumentation 

• Contemporary Buddhist texts mention  64 sects or schools of thought

• Teachers travelled from one place to another, debating with each other and with common people about their philosophy , knowledge and understanding of the world .

2. The brothel 

• These discussions were held in a Kutagarashala - a hut with a pointed roof or a garden like this

• Where the wandering sages used to stay , in these discussions of the sages, the wise , the learned , the contemplative, if any teacher would convince his opponent with his words and logic then the latter would become his disciple along with his followers. 

• Some such teachers included Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, who argued that man can work through his own suffering .

3. Challenging old traditions

• They challenged the Vedas. According to them, the Brahmins or the system were wrong. They believed that it was wrong to determine a person's existence by his caste and gender. They also believed the caste system was wrong.

Jainism

• Founder - Swami Rishabhdev/Adinath (First Tirthankar)

• There have been a total of 24 Tirthankaras in Jainism .

• Parshvanatha - 23rd Tirthankara.

• Mahavira - 24th Tirthankara.

1. Concept of Jain philosophy

1. The whole world is living ; even stones , rocks and water have life.

2. One should always practice non-violence towards living beings .

3. Humans , animals , plants, trees and insects should not be killed.

4. Jain principle of non-violence influenced the entire Indian thought.

5. People of Jainism believe that the cycle of birth and rebirth is determined by the karma of man .

6. To attain liberation from the cycle of karma, one needs to follow the path of renunciation and austerity .

7. This also becomes possible by renouncing the world .

8. For this reason , residing in monasteries was made a mandatory rule for attaining salvation.

2. 5 vows of Jain monks and nuns

1. Non-violence - non-killing.

2. Truth – Do not lie.

3. Asteya - Do not steal.

4. Aparigraha - not accumulating wealth

5. Brahmacharya - Observing celibacy.

3. Expansion of Jainism​  

• Gradually Jainism also started spreading in different parts of India .

• Like Buddhist scholars, Jain scholars also wrote their literature in many languages ​​like Prakrit , Sanskrit and Tamil .

• At present, many ancient Jain statues of Jainism are available .

Buddhism

1. Some important information about Gautam Buddha

Name	Siddhartha
Father	Shuddhodana, king of the Shakya
Mother	Mahamaya Devi (Prajapati Gautami)
Birth	563 BC Kapilvastu , Lumbini (Nepal)
renunciation of home	29 years
Death	483 BC Kasiya village, Uttar Pradesh
Acquisition of knowledge	Bodh Gaya (Bihar) , Niranjana River , Peepal Tree (Bodhi Tree)
Nirvana	Kushinagar
First sermon	Sarnath (turning the wheel of Dharma)

2. Gautam Buddha

• His childhood name was Siddhartha , he was the son of the chieftain of the Shakya tribe . 

• They were provided with all the comforts and amenities within the four walls of the palace, away from the harsh reality of life . 

• Siddhartha wanted to see the world outside the palace , so once he persuaded his charioteer to take him around the city .

• When he came out of the palace to the world, his first journey was quite painful .

• He saw four scenes outside that changed his life .

  

  Four scenes

1. An old man.

2.  A sick person

3. A corpse

4. A hermit

• Siddhartha decided to take the path of renunciation , abandoning the comforts of the palace .

• Siddhartha left the palace in search of truth .

• Siddhartha tried to find many ways of meditation. He tortured his body as much as possible , due to which he narrowly escaped death , but finally he attained enlightenment.  

• After attaining enlightenment he became known as Buddha .

• For the rest of his life he taught religion and proper living .

3. Teachings of the Buddha

• Buddha's teachings are compiled in the Tripitaka

1. Vinaya Pitaka - Rules of the Buddhist Sangha

2. Sutta Pitaka     – Teachings

3. Abhidhamma Pitaka - Philosophical Doctrine

• The teachings of Lord Buddha were reconstructed on the basis of the stories given in the Sutta Pitaka . In some stories supernatural powers have been described. In some stories, instead of supernatural powers, Buddha tried to explain on the basis of discretion and logic .

1. The world is unstable, it keeps changing constantly , nothing is permanent here .

2. The existence of God is irrelevant .

3. Advised the kings to be kind .

4. Truth and non-violence , the middle path should be adopted .

• Nirvana means the destruction of ego and desire . Buddha believed that our desires are the root cause of our problems . If we give up our desires and longings, we will attain nirvana .

• The last instruction Buddha gave to his disciples was that all of you should become a light for yourself because you yourself have to find the path to your own salvation .

4. Followers of Buddha

1. Establishment of the Union   :- 

• Influenced by Buddha , a group of disciples gradually formed. Now there was a need to establish a Sangha , a Sangha was established and some monks became teachers of Dhamma .

2. Life of a monk and a nun

• They lived a very simple life . They kept only those things with them which were necessary for living. Like a bowl to receive food donations . These people were dependent on donations , that is why they were called bhikshus .

• Initially only men could join the union, later women were also allowed to join the union .

• Gautam Buddha's beloved disciple Ananda convinced the Buddha and obtained permission to include women in the Sangha .

• Buddha's adopted mother Prajapati Gautami became the first nun to join the Sangha. Many women who joined the Sangha also became preachers of Dhamma . These women later became Theris .

• Theri – those who have attained Nirvana .

 

3. Class of followers

• Buddha's followers came from various social classes 

1. The King

2. Rich

3. Poor

4. General public

5. Workman

6. Slave

7. Shilpi etc.

• Once a person joined the Sangha, everyone was considered equal . After becoming a bhikshu or nun, one had to give up the old identity .

• Buddhism spread rapidly when Buddha was alive , but even after Buddha's death this religion started spreading rapidly in different countries , people who were dissatisfied with the contemporary practices started joining Buddhism .

• In Buddhist teachings, superiority was not considered on the basis of birth , rather importance was given to the deeds of a person and his good conduct . This is why men and women were attracted to this religion .

Tell the specialty of Ashoka's Dhamma ?

Features of Ashoka's Dhamma

• Respect elders.

• Behave properly with those younger than you.

• Speaking the truth , religious tolerance.

• Policy of sympathy towards scholars and Brahmins.

• Message of non-violence , respect for all religions.

• Treat slaves and servants with kindness.

Stupa of Sanchi

• The stupa of Sanchi is an important evidence related to Buddhism

• In the 19th century, the Europeans showed their interest in the Sanchi Stupa . The French were also fascinated by seeing the Sanchi Stupa . Both the British and the French wanted to take the archway of Sanchi .

• The French asked permission from Shah Jahan Begum to take the archway to the museum in France, but a plaster replica of the archway was made very carefully and both the British and the French were satisfied with it. Therefore, the original remained at its place in Bhopal .

Shah Jahan Begum, Ruler of Bhopal

• Shah Jahan Begum, the ruler of Bhopal and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum granted money for the maintenance of this ancient site .

• John Marshall understood the importance of Sanchi and wrote a book on it and dedicated his book to Sultan Jahan .

• Sultan Jahan also donated money for building a museum and guest house there. Sultan Jahan also donated money for the publication of a book written by John Marshall .

 Importance of Stupa 

From very ancient times people considered some places sacred. Often places where there was special vegetation , unique rocks or amazing natural beauty were considered sacred . At some such places a small altar was also built which was sometimes called Chaitya. There is mention of many Chaityas in Buddhist literature. These include descriptions of places related to Buddha's life .

1. What is a Stupa ?

• Stupa is a semi-circular structure , the tradition of stupa must have existed before Buddha.

• The remains related to Buddha were buried in it , hence it came to be considered sacred in Buddhism.

• This structure gained a reputation as a symbol of Buddhism .

2. How were stupas built ?

• Some inscriptions have been found in the altars and pillars of various ancient stupas .

• After studying these records, historians found out that donations were given for the construction and decoration of these stupas .

• These donations were given by kings , craftsmen , traders , women and men , common people and monks .

3. Structure of the Stupa

• The Sanskrit meaning of stupa is mound. It was born from a hemispherical earthen mound. It was later called anda.

• Gradually its structure became more complex, in which a balance of many squares and circles began to be created.

• There was a harmika on top of the egg. This balcony like structure was a symbol of God's house. There was an umbrella on top of it.

• There was a enclosure around the stupa that separated this sacred place from the ordinary world.

• Torana gates have also been found on some stupas, these torana gates were carved.

• According to a Buddhist text called Ashokavadana, Ashoka ordered parts of Buddha's relics to be distributed to every important city and stupas to be built over them.

• By the second century BC, stupas were built at places like Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath.

Discovery of the Stupa The fate of Amaravati and Sanchi 

1. The local king

• In 1796 , a local king wanted to build a temple . He suddenly found the remains of the Amaravati stupa. He decided to use the stones found there. He felt that there was definitely a treasure hidden in this hill.

• British officer Colin Mackenzie passed through this place and made drawings of many statues but they were not published.  

2. Commissioner of Guntur ( Andhra Pradesh)

• In 1854 the Commissioner of Guntur visited the Amaravati region and took many sculptures and stone pieces to Madras , which came to be known as Elliot Marbles after the commissioner. He also discovered the western archway and concluded that the Amaravati stupa was the largest and most magnificent of the Buddhist stupas .

• In the 1850s , the stones of the Amaravati stupa were taken to different places . Some stones reached the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Kolkata , some reached Madras and some reached London . British officials who visited this place would definitely take something or the other from here .

3. A man with a different mind - H.H. Call

• H.H. Call was a man of different thinking. He believed that it was not good to loot the ancient artifacts of the country.

• He believed that plaster replicas of sculptures should be kept in museums and the originals should be kept in the same place where they were found .

5. Why was Sanchi saved while Amaravati was destroyed ?

• Amaravati was discovered earlier , but arrangements for the preservation of the stupa of Amaravati were not made .

• Scholars could not understand the importance of Amaravati . When Sanchi was discovered in 1818, the stupa was in good condition. Three arches of the stupa were standing and the fourth arch was fallen. The British and the French tried to take the arches of Sanchi to their country , but they were preserved and the original works remained in Sanchi .  

Sculpture

The ancient statues were so beautiful that the Europeans wanted to take them to their country and they were successful in taking them , because these statues were beautiful and valuable.

1. Stories carved in stone

• There were some wandering storytellers who used to carry with them pictures drawn on cloth or paper ; they used to show these pictures while narrating a story .

• When art historians studied the Sanchi sculpture in depth , they found that this scene is taken from Veshantara Jataka, which tells the story of a charitable prince who gave away everything he had to a Brahmin and went to live in the forest with his wife and children .

2. Symbols of worship

• To understand Buddhist sculpture, art historians have to study the Buddha biography , according to which the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree . Some early sculptors attempted to depict Buddha's presence through symbols rather than in human form.

3. Folk traditions

• Some such statues have been found in Sanchi which are perhaps not directly related to Buddhism. It has statues of some beautiful women. Initially, scholars could not understand the importance of this statue. Because this statue did not seem to have any relation with sacrifice and penance. But after studying the literary traditions, it was found out that this is the statue of Shalabhanjika . In folk tradition, it is believed that when this woman touches the trees, flowers bloom and fruits start appearing . This was considered an auspicious symbol and that is why it was installed in the stupa .

• This also shows that external beliefs , practices and concepts were incorporated in Buddhism, which enriched Buddhism .

• Apart from this, statues of animals have also been found. Elephants , horses , cows , bulls , monkeys etc.

• Many animal stories are taken from Jataka. Animals were used as symbols of human qualities , for example - elephant symbolizing strength and wisdom .

• A statue of a woman has also been found who is sprinkling water on the elephant. Some historians believe her to be the mother of Buddha. While some historians believe her to be the popular goddess Gajalakshmi , who was a goddess who brought good fortune .

New Religious Traditions - Mahayana Buddhism

1. After the death of Lord Buddha, Buddhism was divided into two parts .

1.  Hinayana (Theravada)

     I- The old tradition.
    II- Personal striving for Nibbana.
    III- The Buddha was considered a human being.
    IV- Prohibition of idolatry.

    II- Personal striving for Nibbana.
    III- The Buddha was considered a human being.
    IV- Prohibition of idolatry.

2. Mahayana   I- New Tradition.       II- Buddha was considered an incarnation.       III- adopted idolatry.
   

Rise of Puranic Hinduism

1. Vaishnavas - followers of Vishnu

• In Vaishnavism, many incarnations are worshipped. It is believed that when the world order deteriorates due to the increasing influence of sinners, then God takes incarnation in different forms to protect the world.

• These different incarnations were very popular in different parts of the country and many incarnations are depicted in idol form.

2. Shaivas - followers of Shiva

• Shiva is depicted with his symbol Linga , historians had to study the Puranas to understand these sculptures.

• Many of these stories were composed hundreds of years ago and were heard and narrated. These stories contained stories of gods and goddesses. These had Sanskrit shlokas written in them which were recited aloud and even women and Shudras could listen to them.

3. Construction of temples

• The early temples were in the form of a square room, called the sanctum sanctorum , with a door through which worshippers could enter to worship the idol .

• Later, a tall structure started being built over the sanctum sanctorum , which was called Shikhara.

• Wall paintings were created on the walls of the temple . Later, the method of construction of temples changed . Now, large gathering places and high walls were added to the temples and arrangements for water supply were also made .

• The initial temples were carved out of some hills as artificial caves. The artificial caves were built on the orders of Ashoka for the saints of the Ajivika sect .

• This tradition kept on developing gradually and its most developed form is seen in the 8th century Kailashnath temple , this temple was built by cutting the entire hill .

5. Trying to understand the unknown

• When the British saw the idols of gods and goddesses in the 19th century , they could not understand their significance . The idols had multiple heads and hands and were made by mixing the forms of humans and animals . These idols looked distorted to the Europeans and they started hating them .

• To understand these strange sculptures, these scholars compared them with the tradition they already knew about : they compared Indian sculpture with the art tradition of ancient Greece .

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