Variations in Psychological Attributes Notes in English Class 12 Psychology Chapter-1 Book-1
0Team Eklavyaजुलाई 09, 2025
Introduction
People are different from one another in how they think, learn, understand, and perform various tasks. If you observe your friends or classmates, you will notice these differences clearly. These are called individual differences, and they are a natural part of life. In Class 11, you learned how psychology helps us understand human behavior. Now, it is important to understand how people differ, what causes these differences, and how we can measure them. One of the most important areas studied by psychologists is intelligence. People differ in their ability to solve problems, learn from experience, adapt to new situations, and think logically. In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning and nature of intelligence, how its definition has changed, how culture affects intelligence, how people have different intellectual abilities, and what special abilities or aptitudes are.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN
FUNCTIONING
Individual differences are natural and exist in all living beings. Just like the world looks beautiful with a variety of colors, people too have different traits that make each person unique. These differences can be physical (like height, weight, or hair color) or psychological (like intelligence, creativity, or behavior). Psychologists study these differences to understand how and why people behave differently. Some believe that our actions are based on our personal traits, while others believe that the situation we are in has a stronger effect on our behavior. This view is called situationism, which means our surroundings can influence how we act, sometimes even more than our personality.
ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
ATTRIBUTES
Psychological attributes can range from simple things like reaction time to broad concepts like happiness. To understand these attributes, psychologists use assessment, which means measuring and evaluating a person’s traits using scientific methods. For example, saying “Harish is dominant” is based on an assessment of his behavior. This assessment can be informal (subjective and varies by person) or formal (objective and standardized). Psychologists are trained to make formal assessments to understand, predict, and even change behavior if needed. The attribute we assess depends on the purpose—for example, assessing intelligence in a weak student or personality in someone with adjustment problems. Psychological assessment involves systematic tests to study a person’s abilities, behavior, and qualities.
Some Domains of Psychological Attributes
What are Psychological Attributes?
Psychological attributes are complex and multi-dimensional, not simple or one-dimensional like a straight line. Just as a box has length, width, and height, a person's attributes must be understood through various dimensions. To fully understand an individual, we assess areas such as cognitive (thinking), emotional (feelings), and social (interactions with others).
Important Psychological Attributes
Intelligence is the ability to understand the world, think logically, and use resources effectively. It is measured through intelligence tests, which reflect a person’s general thinking ability. However, a low score doesn’t necessarily mean failure in life, as other qualities also play an important role.
Aptitude is a person’s natural potential to learn and develop skills. It helps predict what someone can excel at with proper training. For example, mechanical aptitude may suit an engineer, while language aptitude may lead to becoming a writer.
Interest
Interest refers to a person’s preference for certain activities over others. It helps students choose subjects or careers that match their liking, leading to greater satisfaction and better performance in both work and life.
Personality
Personality is a person’s unique and stable set of traits that make them different from others, such as being outgoing or shy, calm or moody. Understanding personality helps explain and predict a person’s behavior in various situations.
Values
Values are strong beliefs about what is good or ideal behavior. They guide actions and help individuals judge what is right or wrong. Examples of values include political, religious, social, and economic beliefs.
Methods of Psychological Assessment
1. Psychological Tests
Psychological tests are objective and standardized tools used to measure traits like intelligence, aptitude, and personality. They are commonly used in diagnosis, counseling, job selection, and training. These tests include objective types with fixed answers and projective types with open-ended responses, especially for assessing personality.
2. Interview
Interview is a one-to-one conversation used to gather information. It is commonly used by counsellors helping students, employers hiring staff, and journalists asking questions for reports.
3. Case Study
A case study is a deep study of one person’s life and behavior in their real context. Clinical psychologists often use it, collecting data through interviews, tests, observations, and questionnaires.
4. Observation
Observation involves watching and recording behavior in natural settings, such as how a mother and child interact. While it provides real-life insights, it has limitations like lack of control over the situation and possible observer bias.
5. Self-Report
Self-report is when a person shares their own beliefs, opinions, or experiences using tools like questionnaires, personal diaries, or interviews. It offers quick and personal insights but can sometimes be biased.
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence helps us understand how people differ and how they adapt to their environment. In psychology, intelligence means more than just being smart—it includes abilities like learning quickly, understanding ideas, and solving problems. Early psychologists like Alfred Binet defined intelligence as the ability to reason and understand well. Wechsler described it as the overall capacity to think logically, act with purpose, and handle the environment effectively. Later, psychologists like Gardner and Sternberg added that intelligent people also shape and modify their surroundings. This section will help you understand how the meaning of intelligence has changed over time through different theories.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Two Main Approaches:
The psychometric or structural approach focuses on the structure of intelligence and measures it through tests and scores. It uses tools like IQ tests and methods such as factor analysis to understand different aspects of intelligence.
Information-Processing Approach
The information processing approach focuses on the mental processes used to solve problems and produce intelligent behavior. It studies how people use attention, memory, planning, and other cognitive skills in thinking and learning.
Psychometric Theories
Alfred Binet was the first psychologist to formalize the concept of intelligence. He believed it to be a single ability and developed the earliest IQ tests to identify children who were more or less intelligent for educational support.
Charles Spearman proposed the Two Factor Theory of intelligence, which includes a G-factor (general ability used in all tasks) and S-factors (specific abilities for particular tasks). For example, a good scientist may have high general intelligence along with specific skills like math or observation.
Louis Thurstone proposed that intelligence is made up of seven independent primary mental abilities: verbal comprehension, numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual speed, word fluency, memory, and inductive reasoning. Each ability functions separately and contributes to overall intelligence.
J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect Model defines intelligence through three dimensions: Operations (like memory, evaluation), Contents (such as words, numbers, visuals), and Products (like relationships, transformations). Combining these leads to 180 different intellectual abilities.
Arthur Jensen proposed the concept of Level I and Level II intelligence. Level I involves basic memory and recall, such as rote learning, while Level II includes higher-order thinking and problem-solving. Level II is more complex and closely linked to academic success.
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence is not just one skill, but many types.
8 Types of Intelligence:
Robert Sternberg – Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Intelligence = Ability to achieve personal and social goals.
The Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) is a tool designed to measure four key cognitive abilities in children aged 5 to 18 years. These include Attention-Arousal, which helps in maintaining focus for better task performance; Simultaneous Processing, which involves understanding information as a whole (like solving puzzles); Successive Processing, which is the ability to remember things in a sequence (like alphabets or tables); and Planning, which involves setting goals, selecting strategies, and evaluating outcomes (such as creating a study plan).
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
Some people are more intelligent than others due to a combination of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Studies on twins and adopted children show strong genetic influence—identical twins raised together have a high intelligence correlation (0.90), and even those raised apart show similarity. However, environment also plays a key role. Children adopted into better socioeconomic settings often show higher IQ scores, and good nutrition, quality education, and supportive families boost intelligence. Psychologists agree that intelligence results from the complex interaction between inherited traits and life experiences, where heredity sets the potential, and environment shapes the outcome.
Assessment of Intelligence
In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed the first formal intelligence test, introducing the concept of Mental Age (MA)—a measure of a child's intellectual level compared to peers. Chronological Age (CA) is the actual age. A bright child’s MA is higher than their CA, while a dull child’s MA is lower. In 1912, William Stern introduced the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), calculated as IQ = (MA/CA) × 100. An IQ of 100 indicates average intelligence. Most people have IQs between 90–110, forming a bell-shaped (normal) distribution curve. IQ below 70 indicates intellectual disability, while scores above 130 suggest exceptional talent. Intelligence tests help identify both gifted individuals and those needing special support.
Variations of Intelligence
Intellectual Deficiency
Intellectually disabled children face significant learning difficulties and show wide variation in abilities. According to the American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD), intellectual disability involves three key features: IQ below 70 (sub-average intellectual functioning), deficits in adaptive behaviour (such as independence and daily functioning), and onset during the developmental period (0–18 years). Based on IQ, disability is classified as mild (IQ 55–70), moderate (35–55), severe (20–40), and profound (below 20–25). Mildly disabled individuals can often live independently with support, while those with moderate disability need supervision in daily tasks. People with severe or profound disabilities require lifelong care and cannot function independently.
Intellectual Giftedness
Gifted and Talented Children
Gifted individuals show high overall ability and perform well across multiple areas, while talent refers to exceptional skill in a specific field like music, art, or sports. Prodigies are highly talented individuals, often showing remarkable abilities at a very young age. A key study by Lewis Terman (1925) followed over 1500 children with IQs above 130 to understand giftedness.
Teacher’s Perspective on Giftedness
Gifted = High ability + High creativity + High commitment.
Early Signs of Giftedness
Gifted children often show a long attention span, strong memory, and early speaking ability. They tend to prefer new and challenging activities and are usually highly sensitive to their environment, picking up on subtle details around them.
Misconception
Gifted ≠ Just good grades
→ A sportsperson with high psychomotor skill can also be gifted.
Common Traits of Gifted Children
Gifted learners are marked by logical thinking, constant questioning, and strong problem-solving skills. They process information quickly, generate creative and original ideas, and show high motivation with strong self-esteem. They often prefer independent thinking and enjoy working alone on academic tasks.
Identifying Giftedness
Use multiple sources:
IQ tests
Teacher's judgment
School performance
Interviews with parents
Peer/self-ratings
Education for Gifted Students
Gifted children often require special programs beyond the regular curriculum to meet their advanced learning needs. Life enrichment programs are one such example, focusing on developing skills like creative thinking, decision making, planning, and effective communication.
Types of Intelligence Tests
1. Individual vs Group Tests
2. Verbal, Non-Verbal & Performance Tests
Performance and non-verbal tests reduce language/culture bias.
3. Culture-Fair vs Culture-Biased Tests
Culture-biased tests are based on Western cultural norms and may not be suitable for individuals from different backgrounds. In contrast, culture-fair tests are designed to minimize the influence of language and culture, using tasks based on universal or common experiences to ensure fair assessment for all.
🇮🇳 Intelligence Testing in India
Several Indian scholars contributed to test development in psychology. S.M. Mohsin created an intelligence test in Hindi, C.H. Rice adapted Binet’s test into Urdu and Punjabi, and Mahalanobis did so in Bengali. Indian researchers also developed local norms for tests like RPM, WAIS, Kohs’ Block Design, and Cube Construction. The NCERT’s NLEPT published handbooks on Indian tests for intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitude, and interest. Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests remains one of the most widely used Indian performance tests.
CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence helps individuals adapt to their environment, and its development is shaped by culture. Vygotsky emphasized that culture provides the social context for learning and thinking. In less developed societies, social and emotional skills are valued, while advanced societies prioritize reasoning and achievement. Sternberg’s idea of contextual intelligence also shows that intelligence is culturally influenced. While basic mental functions are universal, higher mental abilities like problem-solving are shaped by cultural practices. Western societies promote technological intelligence—skills like speed, analysis, and achievement—reflected in their intelligence tests. In contrast, non-western cultures value social harmony, self-reflection, and collective well-being, though these boundaries are changing with global influence.
Intelligence in the Indian Tradition
In contrast to Western views of technological intelligence, the Indian tradition emphasizes integral intelligence, which focuses on harmony with the self, society, and environment. The Sanskrit term buddhi represents a broader concept than Western intelligence, including not just cognitive skills like understanding and problem-solving, but also emotional, social, and motivational aspects. According to J.P. Das, buddhi involves mental effort, self-awareness, and moral judgment. Indian tradition identifies four key facets of intelligence: cognitive capacity, social competence, emotional competence, and entrepreneurial competence—highlighting a holistic and balanced view of human development.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
The notion of emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence beyond the intellectual sphere/domain and considers that intelligence includes emotions. You may note that it builds on the concept of intelligence in the Indian tradition. Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ and scholastic record is not enough to be successful in life. You may find many people who are academically talented, but are unsuccessful in their own life. They experience problems in family, workplace and interpersonal relationships. What do they lack? Some psychologists believe that the source of their difficulty may be a lack of emotional intelligence. This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who considered emotional intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions”. Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ is used to express intelligence. In simple terms, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotional information accurately and efficiently. To know the characteristics of persons who are high on emotional intelligence, read Box 1.2. Emotional intelligence is receiving increasing attention of educators for dealing with students who are affected by stresses and challenges of the outside world. Programmes aimed at improving students’ emotional intelligence have beneficial effects on their academic achievement. They encourage cooperative behaviour and reduce their antisocial activities. These programmes are very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the classroom.
SPECIAL ABILITIES
Aptitude refers to a person’s specific ability or potential to learn a skill in a particular field after training. Unlike general intelligence, which reflects overall mental ability, aptitude focuses on specialized areas like mechanical, numerical, or verbal skills. It helps predict future performance and success when aligned with interest. Both aptitude and interest are essential for effective career choice—one without the other may lead to unsatisfactory results. Aptitude tests are of two types: independent (e.g., Mechanical, Clerical, Numerical) and multiple (e.g., DAT, GATB, ASVAB). The Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), with 8 subtests, is widely used in education, and its Indian version by J.M. Ojha is popular for measuring various aptitudes like teaching, scientific, and literary skills.
CREATIVITY
Creativity varies among individuals in both level and form—it may appear in writing, music, science, or even everyday tasks like cooking or carpentry. While great thinkers like Einstein or Tagore show the highest level of creativity, everyone has creative potential. Creativity involves producing something new and unique, and can range from groundbreaking ideas to innovative uses of existing ones. It begins in childhood and develops with language and knowledge. Like intelligence, creativity is shaped by both heredity (which sets the limit) and environment (which nurtures it). Factors like motivation, support, and training help realize creative potential. Though not everyone can become a genius, everyone can enhance their creativity with the right opportunities.
Creativity and Intelligence
Creativity vs Intelligence: A Key Debate
Sunita: High grades, accurate, obedient = Intelligent
Rita: Average grades, thinks originally = Creative
Intelligence = Learning quickly and reproducing accurately
Creativity = Producing original, new ideas and approaches
Research Findings
Terman's research in the 1920s showed that a high IQ does not necessarily mean high creativity. While gifted individuals may have strong intelligence, they are not always creative. In fact, creativity can be found in both highly intelligent and average intelligent people, highlighting that the two traits are related but not the same.
Conclusion: Intelligence does not guarantee creativity.
Relation between Creativity and Intelligence
There is a positive relationship between intelligence and creativity, as a certain level of intelligence is necessary for creative thinking. However, beyond a certain point, higher IQ does not guarantee greater creativity. For example, writers need strong language skills, scientists require logical reasoning, and artists must have technical understanding, showing how different forms of intelligence support creativity in specific fields.
Creativity = More than intelligence
Common Traits of Creative People
Original thinking
New/unusual ideas
See relationships between unrelated things
Imaginative, curious, spontaneous
Ask unusual questions
Guess causes and effects
Think in different directions (divergent thinking)
Creativity Tests vs Intelligence Tests
Types of Creativity Tests
General creativity tests: Topic-based idea generation, alternative uses, problem-solving.
Specific area tests:
Literary creativity
Scientific creativity
Mathematical creativity
Famous Psychologists Who Developed Creativity Tests
