Self and Personality Notes in English Class 12 Psychology Chapter-2 Book-1

Introduction

• We often think about our own behavior and how it's different from others. We also question our relationships and reactions in various situations. To understand this, psychologists talk about the concept of self.

• When we ask why people behave or feel differently in the same situation, the idea of personality helps us. Self and personality are closely connected — the self is at the center of our personality.

• Studying them helps us understand who we are, how we are unique, and how we are similar to others. Many thinkers have given different views on this. In this chapter, we’ll learn the basics of self and personality, their theories, and how personality is assessed.

SELF AND PERSONALITY

Self and personality refer to how individuals define themselves and organize their experiences, which are reflected in their behavior. While people have different ideas about themselves (self), their behavior tends to remain consistent across situations, showing a stable pattern called personality. This explains why each person behaves uniquely and has a distinct personality.

CONCEPT OF SELF

What is the ‘Self’?

The self is your personal understanding of who you are, including your thoughts, feelings, experiences, and identity. Just like you're aware of objects around you, you're also aware of your self. However, newborns lack this sense of self, which gradually develops over time through growth and experience.

How is the Self Formed?

The self is shaped through interactions with parents, teachers, friends, and society. It develops based on our experiences and the meaning we assign to them. Importantly, the self is modifiable, meaning it can change and evolve over time with new experiences and learning.

Types of Identity

Self = Personal Identity + Social Identity

Self as Subject & Self as Object

When you say “I know who I am”, you are both the knower and the known.

Kinds of Self

Biological Self

The sense of self begins with basic physical needs such as hunger and thirst. For example, a baby initially cries when hungry, but over time, the child learns to recognize and express the feeling as “I am hungry,” marking the early development of self-awareness.

Personal Self

As the self develops, individuals begin to focus on self-related goals such as freedom, comfort, achievement, and responsibility, reflecting their growing awareness of personal desires, values, and life choices.

Social Self (Relational/Familial Self)

The self is also shaped through relationships with others, emphasizing values like cooperation, unity, sharing, and fulfilling family and cultural roles. These social connections help individuals understand their place and responsibilities within a community.

Summary Table

COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS OF SELF

Psychologists worldwide study the self to understand how people view and define themselves. This understanding is called self-concept, which includes our beliefs about our abilities and traits. It can be positive or negative overall, or vary in specific areas—for example, feeling confident in sports but weak in academics. Self-concept helps form our identity and sense of stability, though measuring it can be difficult and usually involves asking individuals about their own perceptions.

Self-esteem

Self-esteem refers to the value or worth a person assigns to themselves. It varies—some people have high self-esteem, others low. It is assessed by asking individuals how true certain positive statements are about them. By age 6–7, children develop self-esteem in areas like academics, social skills, athletic ability, and appearance. These evaluations form an overall self-image. High self-esteem is linked to better performance and social acceptance, while low self-esteem is associated with anxiety, depression, and antisocial behavior. Warm, supportive parenting boosts self-esteem, while over-controlling parents may unintentionally lower it.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in their own ability to handle situations and achieve goals. Based on Bandura’s social learning theory, it suggests that people learn by observing others, and their belief in their own effectiveness shapes their behavior and risk-taking. High self-efficacy leads to confidence, better control over life choices, and less fear. It can be developed through positive role models, supportive parenting, and successful experiences. People with strong self-efficacy are more likely to overcome challenges, such as quitting smoking or achieving goals.

Self-regulation

Self-regulation is the ability to control and monitor one’s own behavior in response to external demands. It involves self-monitoring, willpower, and delaying gratification—also known as self-control—which is essential for achieving long-term goals. Indian traditions like fasting and non-attachment help build self-control. Psychological techniques such as self-observation, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement are effective tools. These methods help individuals guide their behavior, stay motivated, and make positive changes by rewarding themselves for desirable actions.

CULTURE AND SELF

The concept of self is deeply influenced by culture. In Western cultures, the self is seen as separate and individual, with fixed boundaries between self and others. In contrast, the Indian view of self is more flexible and interconnected, often expanding to include others or the universe, and at times focusing inwardly. Western cultures emphasize individualism, maintaining clear distinctions between self and group, while Indian culture promotes collectivism, where the self and group coexist harmoniously without strict boundaries. This reflects the broader cultural difference between individualistic Western societies and collectivistic Asian ones.

CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

Meaning of Personality:

The word personality comes from the Latin word ‘persona’, meaning mask, as used in Roman theatre. While people often link personality to external appearance, this is a superficial view. In psychology, personality refers to the unique and consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that define how a person responds to different people and situations over time.

Key Features of Personality:

Personality includes both physical traits (like body features) and psychological qualities (like thoughts and emotions). It is unique for each person, meaning no two individuals are exactly alike. While personality is usually stable over time, it can also adapt with life experiences. For example, an honest person is likely to stay honest across situations, but minor changes may occur based on the environment.

Importance of Understanding Personality:

Understanding personality helps predict behavior and allows us to interact with others more effectively. For instance, a child who dislikes being ordered may respond better when given choices rather than commands. Similarly, a child with feelings of inferiority needs a different kind of support than a confident child, showing the importance of tailoring our approach based on personality.

Note:

Terms like temperament, character, and traits are often used to describe a person’s behavior. While they are related to personality, they are not exactly the same, as each focuses on different aspects of how a person thinks, feels, or acts.

MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY

Psychologists study personality to understand why individuals differ in behavior, even within the same family. Some prefer adventure, while others enjoy quiet activities—raising questions about the origins and stability of personality traits. Various theories explain these differences. The type approach groups people based on broad behavior patterns, while the trait approach focuses on specific qualities like shyness or friendliness that vary in degree across individuals. The interactional approach emphasizes the role of situations, suggesting that behavior often changes based on external rewards or threats. Thus, personality is shaped by both internal traits and situational factors.

Type Approaches

Personality typologies aim to group people based on shared behavior patterns, but they often oversimplify human complexity. Ancient systems like Hippocrates’ four humours and Indian concepts like tridosha (vata, pitta, kapha) and trigunas (sattva, rajas, tamas) linked body types and temperament. In psychology, Sheldon’s body-based types—endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph—connect physique with traits but have limited predictive value. Jung’s widely accepted introvert–extravert typology contrasts shy, inward-focused people with outgoing, sociable ones. Friedman and Rosenman’s Type-A (highly driven, impatient) and Type-B (relaxed) types relate to health risks like heart disease. Later, Type-C (cancer-prone, emotion-suppressing) and Type-D (depression-prone) were identified. Though appealing, these typologies oversimplify human behavior, which is far more complex and varied.

Trait Approaches

Trait theories focus on identifying the basic components or "building blocks" of personality by grouping common behavior patterns into traits. A trait is a relatively stable and consistent characteristic that varies across individuals, influencing how they behave in different situations. For example, someone described as sociable is likely to also be friendly and cooperative. Traits remain stable over time, show consistency across situations, and differ in strength and combination among people, leading to individual differences. Several psychologists have developed personality theories based on this trait approach.

Allport’s Trait Theory

Gordon Allport, a pioneer of the trait approach, proposed that individuals possess dynamic traits guiding consistent behavior across situations. He categorized traits into three types: cardinal traits (e.g., Gandhi’s non-violence), which dominate a person’s life; central traits (e.g., sincerity, diligence), which are general but less dominant; and secondary traits (e.g., food or clothing preferences), which are more situation-specific. Allport believed traits act as internal variables influencing responses to different situations. Raymond Cattell, using factor analysis, identified 16 core source traits as the foundation of personality and developed the widely used 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) to assess them.

Eysenck’s Theory

H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality can be understood through three broad biologically-based dimensions. The first is Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability, which reflects how well individuals control their emotions—neurotic people are anxious and moody, while emotionally stable people are calm and reliable. The second is Extraversion vs. Introversion, distinguishing outgoing, active individuals from those who are quiet and reserved. Later, Eysenck added a third dimension, Psychoticism vs. Sociability, where high psychoticism indicates hostility and antisocial behavior. He developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire to measure these traits. His model remains influential in the trait-based study of personality.

Psychodynamic Approach

The psychodynamic approach to personality, popularized by Sigmund Freud, focuses on the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior. As a physician, Freud developed this theory during his clinical work. He observed that patients often felt better after talking about their problems, which led him to explore techniques like free association, dream analysis, and analysis of errors to understand inner mental processes. These methods helped reveal unconscious thoughts and emotions shaping personality.

Levels of Consciousness

Freud’s theory explains personality through emotional conflicts and how people manage them, using a three-level model of consciousness: conscious (current thoughts and actions), preconscious (thoughts just below awareness), and unconscious (deep mental activity, hidden desires, especially sexual, and unresolved conflicts). The unconscious drives behavior and stores repressed wishes that can cause psychological issues if not addressed. Freud believed that abnormal behavior results from unresolved unconscious conflicts. His therapy, psychoanalysis, aims to bring these hidden thoughts into conscious awareness through techniques like dream analysis and free association, helping individuals become more self-aware and balanced.

Structure of Personality

Freud's theory describes personality as consisting of three interacting components: id, ego, and superego. These are not physical structures but psychological forces. The id is the unconscious source of instinctual energy, driven by the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires, especially sexual and aggressive ones. The ego, guided by the reality principle, develops from the id and helps satisfy desires in socially acceptable ways. The superego represents moral values and societal rules, guiding the ego and judging whether actions are right or wrong. A person’s behavior and personality depend on the balance among these three forces. The id is fueled by libido, the life instinct, which drives behavior toward pleasure and survival.

Ego Defence Mechanisms

1. Defence Mechanisms

According to Sigmund Freud, many human behaviors are attempts to escape or manage anxiety. To protect the ego (self) from this stress, people unconsciously use defence mechanisms—mental strategies that distort reality in order to reduce anxiety and emotional discomfort.

Key Defence Mechanisms:

Note: These mechanisms are unconscious. If overused, they can lead to maladjustment or mental stress.

2. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that personality develops in childhood through 5 stages. Problems in any stage can cause fixation or regression in adulthood.

Important Concepts:

Freud explained childhood conflicts through the Oedipus Complex in boys, where they feel a desire for their mother and rivalry with the father, which gets resolved by identifying with the father. Similarly, the Electra Complex in girls involves desire for the father and rivalry with the mother, resolved through identification with the mother. Sometimes, if development is blocked, it leads to fixation at a certain stage. Under stress, people may also show regression, returning to earlier behaviors, like an adult throwing tantrums.

Post-Freudian Approaches

Post-Freudian theorists, also called neo-analysts, expanded Freud’s ideas by focusing less on sexual and aggressive drives and more on ego, creativity, and personal growth. Carl Jung, a key figure, developed analytical psychology, emphasizing that personality is shaped by internal forces seeking balance. He introduced the concept of the collective unconscious, a shared reservoir of inherited archetypes like the Mother Earth or God, seen in myths and dreams across cultures. Jung believed the self aims for unity and wholeness, and achieving this requires awareness of both personal and collective unconscious wisdom to live in harmony.

Karen Horney : Optimism

Several post-Freudian theorists expanded and revised Freud’s ideas. Karen Horney rejected Freud’s view of women as inferior, emphasizing social and cultural influences over biology and highlighting the role of childhood insecurity in causing anxiety and hostility. Alfred Adler focused on purposeful, goal-directed behavior, stressing the importance of overcoming feelings of inferiority for healthy personality development. Erich Fromm viewed humans as social beings motivated by freedom, love, justice, and truth, and believed personality forms through social relationships and cultural context. Erik Erikson emphasized ego development across the lifespan, especially during adolescence, introducing the idea of an identity crisis. Despite their influence, psychodynamic theories face criticism for relying on limited case studies, vague concepts, and male-centered views, making scientific validation difficult.

Behavioural Approach

The behavioural approach to personality focuses on observable and measurable behaviors, ignoring internal mental processes. It sees personality as a pattern of learned responses to environmental stimuli, shaped through reinforcement. According to this view, behaviors develop to satisfy biological or social needs—for example, children may learn to eat disliked vegetables due to praise from parents, and later enjoy them. Key theories include classical conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental conditioning (Skinner), and observational learning (Bandura). While classical and instrumental theories emphasize direct stimulus-response learning, Bandura’s theory also includes cognitive processes and social learning through observation and imitation, making it more comprehensive.

Cultural Approach

The cultural approach to personality explains how people's traits develop in response to their ecological and cultural environments. It suggests that factors like climate, terrain, food sources, and economic activities shape social structures, child-rearing practices, and values. These elements form the learning environment, influencing personality development. For example, the Birhor tribe of Jharkhand, who practice hunting and gathering, raise children to be independent, autonomous, and achievement-oriented. In contrast, agricultural societies value obedience, responsibility, and nurturance. Thus, personality traits are shaped by cultural adaptations to the demands of different environments and ways of life.

Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach to personality, developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focuses on personal growth, self-actualisation, and the inherent goodness of individuals. Rogers emphasized the concept of the fully functioning person, motivated by the desire to realise their true potential. He believed personality develops through the alignment of the real self and ideal self, and that a positive social environment boosts self-concept and self-esteem. His client-centered therapy promotes unconditional positive regard to support growth. Maslow, in his hierarchy of needs, described self-actualisation as the highest human goal, where people fulfill their unique potential through love, creativity, and purpose. Both saw personality as shaped by inner growth rather than unconscious conflicts.

ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY

Understanding and describing people's personalities is part of daily life, but our judgments can be biased. To gain accurate insights, psychologists use formal personality assessment methods. Assessment involves systematic procedures to evaluate individuals based on specific traits, aiming to understand and predict behavior with accuracy. It is useful in diagnosis, training, counseling, and placement. Common assessment techniques include Psychometric Tests, Self-Report Measures, Projective Techniques, and Behavioural Analysis. Each method is based on different psychological theories and offers unique insights into personality.

Self-report Measures

Gordon Allport suggested that the best way to assess personality is by asking individuals about themselves, leading to the development of self-report measures. These are structured tools, often theory-based, where individuals rate their own feelings and behaviors using a scale. Responses are taken at face value, scored quantitatively, and interpreted using established norms. This method helps in objectively assessing a person’s personality traits.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Self-report measures are commonly used for personality assessment, where individuals respond to structured statements about themselves. One widely used tool is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), developed by Hathaway and McKinley, now available as MMPI-2, with 567 true/false items across 10 subscales diagnosing various psychological disorders. In India, a similar tool is the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI). The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) measures personality along introversion–extraversion, emotional stability, and psychoticism. Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) assesses 16 traits and is useful in career and vocational guidance. However, self-report measures can be affected by biases like social desirability (giving socially acceptable answers) and acquiescence (agreeing with all statements). Proper training is essential before using or interpreting these tests.

Projective Techniques

Direct personality assessment techniques, like self-report measures, often fail to reveal unconscious thoughts, as people may give socially desirable answers or feel self-conscious. To address this, projective techniques were developed as indirect methods to uncover hidden motives and feelings. These methods use unstructured or ambiguous stimuli, allowing individuals to project their inner thoughts and emotions. Common examples include word associations, inkblots, and story writing around pictures. Key features include unstructured stimuli, lack of clear right or wrong answers, and subjective interpretation by trained experts. Unlike objective psychometric tests, projective techniques require in-depth analysis and are more suited to exploring the unconscious aspects of personality.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test

Projective techniques are used to understand the unconscious mind, hidden feelings, conflicts, and motivations of a person. They present ambiguous stimuli so that people project their inner thoughts while responding.

1. Rorschach Inkblot Test

The Rorschach Inkblot Test, invented by Hermann Rorschach, uses 10 inkblot cards—5 black & white, 2 red & black, and 3 in pastel colors—all featuring symmetrical shapes around 7”×10” in size. It has two phases: in Performance Proper, the person says what they see; in Inquiry, they explain where and why they saw it. The test aims to uncover personality traits and hidden thoughts, but it requires expert training for accurate interpretation.

2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Morgan and Murray, uses 30 black & white picture cards and 1 blank card. The subject is asked to tell a story for each image, including what happened before, what is happening now, what might happen later, and how the characters feel. This helps reveal a person’s motives, inner conflicts, and emotional responses. The test has been adapted for children, elderly individuals, and also has an Indian version by Uma Chaudhury.

3. Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study)

The Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study, created by Rosenzweig, uses cartoon-like pictures depicting frustrating situations. The subject is asked to describe how the frustrated person would react, helping to assess the type of aggression (direct, indirect, or constructive) and its direction (towards self, others, or avoidance). An Indian version of this test was adapted by Pareek.

4. Sentence Completion Test

The Sentence Completion Test uses a set of incomplete sentences that the subject is asked to complete, such as “My father...” or “I am afraid of...”. This method helps reveal a person’s attitudes, motivations, fears, and internal conflicts. It is useful for uncovering unconscious thoughts through the subject’s use of language and expression.

5. Draw-a-Person Test

In the Draw-a-Person Test, the subject is asked to draw a person, then a person of the opposite sex, and finally create a story about them. The drawings are analyzed to understand emotional issues and self-image. For example, no facial features may suggest fear of relationships, a big neck may indicate poor impulse control, and a large head could point to concerns about mental functioning.

Advantages of Projective Techniques:

Projective techniques are valuable tools for exploring the unconscious aspects of personality. They are especially useful in clinical settings to understand a person’s emotional issues, hidden conflicts, and deeper psychological concerns that may not surface through direct questioning.

Limitations:

Projective tests require specialized training for proper interpretation, as their scoring can lack reliability and validity. The results are often subjective, depending on the examiner’s skill and perspective, which may lead to varied interpretations.

Behavioural Analysis

A person’s behaviour in a variety ofsituations can provide us with meaningful information about her/his personality. Observation of behaviour serves as the basis of behavioural analysis. An observer’s report may contain data obtained from interview, observation, ratings, nomination, and situational tests. We will examine these different procedures in some detail.

Interview

Interviews are a common method for assessing personality and involve asking individuals specific questions. They can be structured, with a fixed set of questions for objective comparison, or unstructured, where the interviewer explores freely to form an impression. In diagnostic interviews, deeper probing helps uncover underlying personality traits. The way a person responds and presents themselves can reveal much about their personality, and using rating scales can improve the objectivity of the assessment.

Observation

Behavioural observation is a widely used method for assessing personality, involving systematic watching of a person's actions in real-life situations. Unlike casual observation, it requires trained professionals and clear guidelines to accurately interpret behaviors. For instance, a clinical psychologist may observe a client's interactions at home to gain insights into their personality. However, this method has limitations—it demands extensive training, psychological maturity, and may be affected by the observer's presence, which can alter the person's natural behavior and reduce data accuracy.

Behavioural Ratings

Behavioural ratings are commonly used in educational and workplace settings to assess personality, typically by people who know the individual well. These ratings categorize individuals based on observed behaviors, using numbers or descriptive terms. However, ratings can be confusing if traits are not clearly defined. They also face limitations like halo effect—where one trait overly influences overall judgment—and response biases, such as always choosing middle or extreme options. These issues can be minimized with proper rater training and carefully designed rating scales to ensure more accurate assessments.

Nomination

The nomination method is used for peer assessment, where individuals who know each other well select one or more people they prefer to work, study, or engage with, often explaining their choices. This helps identify personality traits and behavioral qualities based on peer perceptions. While generally reliable, the method can be influenced by personal biases or group dynamics.

Situational Tests

Situational tests are used to assess how individuals respond in specific, often stressful, scenarios. A common example is the situational stress test, where a person must complete a task while facing interference or non-cooperation from others. This test involves role-playing, and the individual’s behavior is observed and evaluated. A verbal report is also collected to understand their interpretation of the task. The scenario may be real or simulated through videos, helping assess personality traits like stress tolerance, adaptability, and interpersonal skills.