Introduction
- At the beginning of the nineteenth century, China dominated East Asia and the Qing Dynasty was ruling China, which was quite strong. Japan was isolated as a small island at this time.
- Within a few decades, China was in turmoil and unable to resist the colonial powers. The Qing Dynasty's control began to weaken and China was plunged into civil war.
- On the other hand, Japan worked towards increasing its power. Japan strengthened its industrial economy, and took control of Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910). Subsequently, Japan also defeated China in 1894 and Russia in 1905.
- Japan became an advanced industrial nation, but its imperialist aspirations pushed it into war. In 1945, Japan was defeated by Anglo-American military forces, but by the 1970s it had rebuilt its economy and become a major economic power.
- Japan's modernization was based on capitalism and occurred in a world dominated by Western colonialism.
- China and Japan have a long tradition of writing history because rulers believed that history was an important guide for them. Therefore, rulers established government departments to preserve records and write the history of dynasties.
- Sima Qian is considered the greatest historian of ancient China. In Japan too, importance was given to the writing of history due to the cultural influence of China.
- The Meiji government established a bureau in 1869 to collect records and write about the Meiji Restoration. The written word was highly respected, and literary skills were highly prized. This resulted in a variety of written sources, including government histories, scholarly writings, popular literature, and religious tracts.
There is a great difference in the physical geography of China and Japan.
China is a large continental country with a wide variety of climates. The main area is drained by 3 major rivers:
1. Yellow River (Huang He)
2. Yangtze River (Chang Jiang - 3rd longest river in the world)
3. Pearl River.
Much of China is mountainous. Han is the most prominent ethnic group and the main language is Chinese
Japan is an island chain consisting of four largest islands
1. Honshu
2. Kyushu
3. Shikoku
4. Hokkaido
- More than 50 percent of the main islands are mountainous.
- Japan is in a very active earthquake zone.
- There is no tradition of animal husbandry in Japan.
- Rice is the staple crop and fish is the main source of protein
political system of japan
- Japan was ruled by an emperor residing in Kyoto, but by the end of the twelfth century real power had passed to the shoguns, who ruled in the emperor's name. The Tokugawa family held the shogunate from 1603 to 1867. During this time the country was divided into 250 provinces, ruled by daimyo (regional rulers). The shoguns controlled the daimyo, and the daimyo were ordered to live in the capital, Edo (modern Tokyo), so as not to pose a threat to the shogun.
- The shogun also controlled major cities and mines. The samurai (warrior class) served the shogun and daimyo and were members of the ruling elite.
- Three major changes at the end of the 16th century laid the foundation for Japan's future development:
1. By taking away weapons from the peasants, only the samurai got the right to keep the sword, which maintained peace and order and reduced wars.
2. Daimyo were ordered to reside in their regional capitals and were given autonomy.
3. Land was surveyed and classified on the basis of productivity so that a permanent system of revenue could be established.
- Due to these changes, by the mid-17th century, Japan's largest city, Edo, had the world's largest population. In addition, Osaka and Kyoto also became major cities, boosting the commercial economy and establishing financial systems.
- A vibrant culture developed in the cities, where the merchant class encouraged drama and the arts. People were fond of reading, and many writers could make a living from their writing alone. In Edo, people could rent books for the price of a bowl of noodles, which shows how far the printing process and the level of education had advanced.
- Japan was considered a wealthy country, as it imported luxury goods such as silk from China and textiles from India. However, exporting silver and gold to pay for these imports was a drain on Japan's economy. For this reason, the Tokugawa rulers banned the export of precious metals and encouraged the silk industry at Nishijin in Kyoto to reduce Japan's imports of silk. Nishijin's silk became regarded as the finest in the world.
Meiji Restoration
1. The Meiji Restoration and the Westernization of Japan
- In 1867-68 the Meiji Dynasty ended the rule of the Tokugawa Dynasty, marking the beginning of a new era in Japan.
- There were many reasons behind this, such as discontent within the country and the demand for increased international trade and diplomatic relations.
- In 1853 the United States sent Commodore Matthew Perry to sign an agreement with the Japanese government.
- This agreement obliged Japan to establish diplomatic and trade relations with America.
- Subsequently, Japan signed this agreement in 1854, which opened the way for Japan to join the international world.
2. Emperor Meiji's rule and the westernization of Japan
- In 1868 a movement removed the shogun from power and Emperor Meiji was brought to Edo (now Tokyo).
- Edo was made the new capital of Japan and renamed Tokyo (Eastern Capital).
- At this time Japan was facing the threat of colonisation by European countries; fearing this, Japan decided to adopt the ideas of Western countries.
- The slogan "Fukonku kyore" (rich country, strong army) was coined, aimed at strengthening Japan's economy and military so that it could avoid colonization.
3. Education and administrative reforms
- The Meiji government took several steps towards education and administrative reforms.
- In 1890, the education decree was implemented, under which the process of providing education to all children was started.
- In addition, a new school system was introduced, making it compulsory for both boys and girls to attend school.
- Changes were also made in the administrative structure, and old village and regional boundaries were replaced by a new administrative structure.
- Military service was made compulsory for all men over 20, and a modern military force was created.
4. Foreign policy and victory in wars
- The Meiji government also strengthened its foreign policy, under which Japan fought wars with China and Russia.
- Japan emerged victorious in these wars, further strengthening its international position.
- Although the process of democracy faced many pressures and challenges during this period, Japan made significant progress economically and politically.
Modernization of the economy
- An important part of the Meiji reforms was the modernization of the economy. Money was raised by taxing agriculture.
- Between 1870-72, Japan built its first railway line between Tokyo and the port of Yokohama. Machines for the textile industry were imported from Europe and foreign craftsmen were called in to train workers.
- In addition, they were sent to teach in Japanese universities and schools, and Japanese students were also sent abroad for education.
- Modern banking institutions were introduced in 1872. Companies such as Mitsubishi and Sumitomo were helped to become major shipbuilders through subsidies and tax benefits, and Japanese trade began to be carried out via Japanese ships.
Industrial Laborer
- The number of industrial workers increased from 2 lakh in 1870 to 40 lakh in 1913.
- Most workers worked in small units employing less than 5 people and did not use machines and electricity.
- More than half of the workers in modern factories were women.
- After 1900, the number of men in factories began to increase, and by 1930, there were more men than women. The number of workers in factories also began to increase, in 1920 there were more than 2000 workers, and by 1930 this number had increased to more than 4000.
- The rapid growth of industrialization led to a huge demand for resources such as wood, which also led to environmental destruction. The first movement against industrial pollution took place in 1897.
Aggressive nationalism
- The Meiji Constitution was based on limited suffrage and created Japan's parliament, the Diet, with limited powers. Between 1918 and 1931, prime ministers elected by popular vote formed councils of ministers. Thereafter, national unity councils lost power, abandoning party distinctions.
- The emperor was considered the commander of the armed forces, and in 1890 it was recognized that the army and navy were independently controlled. In 1899 the prime minister decreed that only serving generals and admirals could become ministers.
- The drive to strengthen the military forces and expand Japan's colonies was linked to the fear that Japan might become dependent on Western powers. This fear was used to suppress voices opposing military expansion and the higher taxes levied to fund the military forces.
Westernization and tradition
- Successive generations of Japanese intellectuals had different views on Japan's relations with other countries. For some intellectuals, the United States and Western European countries were at the pinnacle of civilization, and Japan aspired to be like them.
- Fukuzawa Yukichi believed that Japan should 'eject Asia from itself', meaning that Japan should shed its Asian characteristics and become part of the West. The next generation questioned the complete adoption of Western ideas and argued that national pride should be based on indigenous values.
- Many intellectuals were attracted to Western liberalism and wanted Japan to base its focus on democracy rather than its military might.
- Ueki Emori (1857-1892), the leader of the democratic rights movement demanding constitutional government, was an admirer of the principles of natural human rights and popular sovereignty in the French Revolution. He was in favor of liberal education, which could provide every individual with an opportunity to develop. Some other intellectuals also recommended women's suffrage. Due to this pressure, the government was forced to declare a constitution.
everyday life
- Japan's transformation into a modern society can also be seen in the changes in everyday life. In the traditional patriarchal family system, many generations lived under the control of the head of the family. But as people became more prosperous, new ideas about the family began to spread.
- Under the new ideas, the new home (which the Japanese call the English word "homu") was associated with the nuclear family, where husband and wife worked together and managed their home. This new understanding initiated changes in family life, which led to demand for new types of household products, new types of family entertainment, and new types of homes.
Victory over modernity
- Power-centric nationalism was promoted during the 1930s-40s when Japan waged wars to expand its colonies in China and Asia. This conflict later turned into World War II when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in the United States.
- During this period, those who expressed dissent were persecuted and sent to prison. Patriotic organizations were formed that supported the war, including many women's organizations.
- In 1943 a symposium was held called "Victory over Modernity." The symposium discussed the dilemma Japan was facing—how to conquer the Western powers while remaining modern.
- Philosopher Nishitani Keiji defined 'modernity' as the union and unity of three Western currents: the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the development of the natural sciences. He also argued that Japan's 'moral energy saved it from becoming a colony' and that Japan had a duty 'to build a new world system, a great East Asia'.
After defeat – comeback as a global economic power
1. Japan's colonial empire and its end
- Japan's attempts at a colonial empire ended in defeat at the hands of the Allied forces.
- It was believed that the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to end the war quickly, but some also believe that the destruction and suffering on such a massive scale was completely unnecessary.
- Following the US-led occupation of Japan (1945–47), it was demilitarized and a new constitution was promulgated. Its Article 9 forbade the use of war as a national policy.
2. Social and economic reforms
- During the American occupation, attempts were made to reform agriculture, reorganize business organizations, and eliminate the hold of large monopoly companies on the Japanese economy.
- Political parties were revived, and in 1946 Japan held its first elections in which women gained the right to vote.
3. Japan's economic reconstruction and the 'miracle'
- Despite its terrible defeat, the Japanese economy rebuilt very quickly, in what has been called the post-Buddhist 'miracle'. A close relationship was established between government, bureaucracy and industry.
- In 1964, the Tokyo Olympics marked the maturation of Japan's economy. That same year saw the introduction of the Shinkansen (bullet train) network, which ran at speeds of up to 200 mph (they now reach 300 mph).
- This shows the capability of Japan as they introduced better and cheaper products to the market through new technology.
4. Civil society movements and environmental issues
- In the 1960s, civil society movements developed, aimed at protesting the ill effects on health and the environment of increasing industrialization.
- At this time, an awareness spread against increasing pollution and ignoring the environmental crisis and civil society raised its voice against it.
China
1. Viewpoints of the three major groups in Chinese debates
- Three major groups of thought emerge in Chinese debates. Early reformers such as Kang Yovel (1858-1927) and Lipant Qichou (1873-1929) sought to meet Western challenges by reinterpreting traditional ideas.
- At the same time, republican revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen were influenced by Western ideas and saw the need for democratic reforms in China so that China could counter Western imperialism.
- On the other hand, the goal of the Communist Party of China was to eliminate long-standing inequalities and drive out foreigners.
2. The beginning of modern China
- The beginnings of modern China can be traced back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when the first contacts with the West occurred.
- Britain used military force to expand the opium trade, resulting in the First Opium War (1839–1842).
- China feared Western dominance, and had the example of India in front of it.
3. Chinese thinkers and the influence of Western ideas
- Thinker Liang Qichou said China can cultivate national consciousness among its people to compete with the West.
- He wrote in 1903 that India had been ruined by the East India Company and that Britain had used Indian troops in the war against China.
4. Confucianism and traditional thinking- These events made us realise that there was a need to change traditional thinking.
- Confucianism, the dominant ideology in China, encouraged principles of good manners, practical wisdom, and proper social relations.
- It laid the foundation of Chinese society and politics, but it was felt necessary to change it according to the needs of the times.
5. Study Abroad for Students
- China sent its students to Japan, Britain and France to learn new ideas and come back.
- Large numbers of Chinese students went to Japan in the 1890s, and not only brought new ideas with them but also played an important role in the founding of the republic.
- Since the Chinese and Japanese languages use the same hieroglyphics, China borrowed from Japan Japanese translations of European ideas of justice, rights, and revolution. This was a reversal of traditional relationships.
Establishment of the Republic
1. Sun Yat-sen and the establishment of the Republic of China
In 1911 the Manchu Empire ended and the Republic of China was established under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), who is considered the founder of modern China. Sun Yat-sen came from a poor family and was educated in missionary schools where he was introduced to democracy and Christianity. He was concerned about the future of China and his set of principles became famous as the 'Three Principles' (Sun Min Chui), which were as follows:
- Nationalism: ousting the Manchu dynasty and establishing a republican government, as the Manchu dynasty was considered a foreign dynasty.
- Socialism: Bringing equality in land ownership by regulating capital.
- Democracy (Modern Science): Developing China.
2. Demonstrations and efforts at unity in China
- There were demonstrations in China against foreigners, to end poverty, to bring equality in marriage, and to expel foreigners.
- In this, Kuomintang (National People's Party) and the Chinese Communist Party together made efforts to unify the country.
- Sun Yat-sen's ideas formed the basis of the Kuomintang's political philosophy, which prioritised the 'four great needs'—clothing, food, housing and transportation.
3. The struggle between Chiang Kaishek and the Kuomintang
- After the death of Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kaishek (1887–1975) took over leadership of the Kuomintang and launched military campaigns against local warlords, bringing them under his control and removing the Communists.
- Chiang promoted secular Confucianism and sought to militarize the nation. He created regulations for women, and the Kuomintang's social base was in urban areas.
4. Industrial development and social change
- An industrial working class emerged in cities such as Shanghai, numbering 500,000 workers in 1919. However, only a small percentage of these were working in modern industries.
- Social and cultural change was facilitated by the expansion of schools and universities.
- Peking University was founded in 1902 and journalism played an important role in spreading new ideas.
5. The failure of the Kuomintang and social inequality
- The Kuomintang failed because of its narrow social base and limited political vision. Important parts of Sun Yat-sen's program—regulation of capital and equality of land rights—were never implemented, as the party ignored the peasants and growing social inequality. Instead, they tried to impose a military regime that ignored the people's problems.
The rise of the Chinese Communist Party
- Japanese invasion of China and the condition of Kuomintang: After Japan attacked China in 1937, the Kuomintang (Congress Party) had to retreat. The war was long and exhausting, which weakened China. Between 1945 and 1949, the inflation rate rose by 30 percent every month, completely ruining the life of the common man.
- Rural Crisis: There were two major crises in rural China: first, the environmental crisis, which included desertification, deforestation and flooding. Second, the socio-economic crisis, which was caused by destructive land practices, debt, ancient technology and poor communications.
- Communist Party and Russian Influence: The Communist Party of China was founded in 1921, shortly after the Russian Revolution. The Comintern and the Soviet Union supported communist parties around the world. According to the traditional Marxist view of communism, revolution was supposed to come through the working classes in urban areas.
- Impact and Fall of Communism: Initially, people of different countries were attracted to communism, but soon it became a tool for the selfish interests of the Soviet Union. In 1943, the influence of communism was eliminated, as it started working mostly for the interests of the Soviet Union.
Establishment of New Democracy 1949-65
- The government of the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. It was based on the principles of 'new democracy'. Unlike the 'dictatorship of the proletariat' that the Soviet Union claimed to establish, the new democracy was an alliance of all social classes.
- The main sectors of the economy were placed under government control and private factories and land ownership were gradually eliminated. This program lasted until 1953 when the government announced the start of a program of socialist transformation.
- In 1958, an attempt was made to rapidly industrialise the country through the policy of the Long Leap Movement. People were encouraged to set up steel furnaces in their backyards.
- People's communes were established in the countryside, where people owned land together and grew crops together. By 1958 there were 26,000 such communes, representing 98 percent of the agricultural population.
- Mao succeeded in motivating the masses to achieve the goals set by the party. His concern was to create a 'socialist man' who would hold five things dear: fatherland, people, work, science and public property.
- Mass organizations were formed for peasants, women, students and other groups. For example, the All China Democratic Women's Federation had 76 million members, the All China Students' Federation had 32.9 million members. But these goals and methods were not liked by everyone in the party.
clash of philosophies
- Struggles arose between Maoists who sought to create the 'socialist individual' and those who criticised Mao's emphasis on ideology rather than efficiency.
- The Cultural Revolution unleashed a period of turmoil, weakening the party and severely disrupting the economy and education system.
- The tide began to turn in the late 1960s. In 1975, the Party once again called for greater social discipline and the building of an industrial economy so that China could become a powerful country before the end of the century.
Reforms starting in 1978
- In 1978, a socialist market economy was introduced, aimed at development in the fields of science, industry, agriculture and defence. This process was defined as a four-point goal designed to accelerate China's modernisation.
- In 1989, on the 70th anniversary of the May 4th Movement, many intellectuals called for greater openness and an end to the rigid principles (called shu-shaozhi). Meanwhile, student demonstrations took place in Beijing's Tiananmen Square, which were brutally suppressed by the Chinese government. The incident was criticized worldwide.
- The subsequent reform period revived debate over China's development. The Party's central tenet was its strong political control, economic openness, and integration with global markets. However, critics argued that growing inequalities between social groups, regions, men and women, and the growing influence of the market were creating social tensions.
The story of Taiwan
- Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan in 1949 after being defeated by the Chinese Communist Party, taking with him more than 300 million US dollars and priceless art. In Taiwan, he founded the Republic of China.
- Taiwan was lost to China in the war with Japan in 1894-95 and became a Japanese colony. But China regained its sovereignty after the Cairo Declaration (1943) and the Potsdam Declaration (1949).
- Following the massive demonstrations of February 1947, the Kuomintang brutally murdered a generation of opponents and leaders. The Kuomintang, led by Chiang Kai-shek, established a repressive government in Taiwan, and completely suppressed political opposition. They removed the local population from power and implemented land reform, which increased agricultural productivity. As a result, in 1973 Taiwan's gross domestic product rose to second place in Asia, after Japan.
- Taiwan's economy, based largely on trade, continued to grow. Taiwan's transition to democracy was dramatic, with free elections bringing indigenous Taiwanese to power.
- At the diplomatic level, most countries have trade missions only in Taiwan, but Taiwan is not allowed to have full diplomatic relations and embassies, as it is considered part of China.
- The issue of reunification with mainland China is still controversial, although cross-Gulf relations (between China and Taiwan) are improving. Trade and investment in Taiwan are increasing, and movement has become easier. In the future, if Taiwan does not take any steps towards full independence, China may agree to accept Taiwan as a semi-autonomous region.
The story of Korea
The beginning of modernization
- Beginning of Modernization: In the late nineteenth century, Korea's Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) faced internal and social conflicts. It also had to endure foreign pressure from China, Japan, and Western countries. Despite these difficult circumstances, Korea made efforts to bring modernity to its country.
- Japan's Imperialist Occupation: Imperial Japan annexed Korea as its colony in 1910, ending more than 500 years of rule by the Joseon Dynasty. During the occupation, the Japanese government began suppressing Korean culture and moral values, which aroused deep resentment among the Korean people.
- Struggle for Independence: Koreans continued to protest against Japanese colonial rule. They established a provisional government and sent delegations to international forums to advocate for Korean independence. During this time, Korean leaders tried to gain support from foreign leaders at international meetings such as the Cairo, Yalta and Potsdam conferences.
- World War II and Japan's defeat: Japanese colonial rule over Korea ended with Japan's defeat in World War II in August 1945. This defeat led to Korea's independence, but its future path was also full of disputes, which later led to the division of the country.
Post-war nations
- The Korean War began in June 1950, when a Cold War-era proxy war began between US-led United Nations forces in South Korea and Communist Chinese forces in North Korea. After three years of fighting, the conflict ended with an armistice agreement in July 1953, but Korea was forever divided.
- This war not only caused massive loss of life and property, but also slowed down the process of free market economic development and democratization. The currency issued during the war and heavy national spending led to inflation, which caused a sudden rise in prices. Moreover, the industrial facilities built during the colonial period were completely destroyed, and as a result, South Korea was forced to seek economic aid from the US.
Rapid industrialization and strong leadership
- In 1963, military leader Park Chung-hee became president of South Korea. Park's administration pursued a state-led, export-oriented policy for economic development in the country. Under this, the government's five-year economic plans supported large corporate firms, emphasized expanding employment, and promoted Korea's international competitiveness.
- Korea experienced unprecedented economic growth beginning in the 1960s, when state policy shifted its focus from import substitution industry (ISI) to exports. Under the export-oriented policy, the government encouraged industries that offered comparative advantages.
- In the 1970s, Korea shifted its focus from small-scale industries to high-value-added heavy and chemical industries. Industries such as steel, non-ferrous metals, machinery, shipbuilding, electronics, and chemical production were chosen as the key areas for the country's economic development.
- Under the Park administration, the combination of strong leaders, trained officials, industrialists, and a capable labor force made Korea a worldwide example of economic growth. High levels of education also played an important role in this growth, as most of Korea's workers were already literate and prepared to adopt new technologies and skills.
- In addition, Korea attracted foreign investment under its open economic policy and adopted advanced institutions and technologies from other countries. Remittances from South Korean workers and a high domestic savings rate also contributed to the growth of industrial sectors.
- The mainstay of the Park administration's long-term power was Korea's economic development, which made the country a major economic power regionally and globally.
Demands for democratization and sustained economic growth
- Desire for democratization after the death of Park Chung-hee: The desire for the restoration of democracy in South Korea grew after the assassination of Park Chung-hee, but in December 1979 military leader Chun Doo-hwan staged another military coup, seizing power.
- 1980 Democracy Movement and Gwangju Killings: In May 1980, students and citizens led by Chun Doo-hwan held protests in major cities across Korea demanding democracy against the military regime. The military government imposed martial law across the country to suppress these protests. Although students and citizens in the city of Gwangju continued to demand the end of martial law, Chun's military regime brutally suppressed these movements.
- Chun Doo-hwan becomes President: In late 1980, Chun Doo-hwan assumed the presidency through an indirect election under the Constitution. The Chun administration strictly suppressed democratic influences to stabilize its rule.
- Economic growth: The Chun administration strengthened Korea's economy from an international perspective, growing it from 1.7% in 1980 to 13.2% in 1983. Inflation was also controlled. This economic growth led to urbanization, education levels, and advances in the media, which increased citizens' awareness of their political rights.
- Democratic Movement and Constitutional Amendment: After the brutal death of a university student in May 1987, there were massive demonstrations for democracy in Korea. The Chun administration tried to suppress it, but this time apart from students, middle class citizens also joined the movement. Due to these pressures, the Chun administration was forced to amend the constitution and citizens got the right to directly elect the President.
- Beginning of a New Democracy: Thus, the democratic movement against the Chun government marked the beginning of a new chapter of Korean democracy, with changes to the constitution giving Korean citizens the right to directly vote in presidential elections.
Korean democracy and the IMF crisis
