Displacing Indigenous Peoples Notes in English Class 11 History Chapter-6 Book-Themes in World History

 

In this chapter we will learn about the history of the indigenous people of America and Australia.

Key Points:-

1. Immigration in the 18th century:  People from Europe began to settle in America (Central, North, and South), South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.  The settlements of these people were called "colonies".

2. Impact on the natives:  The arrival of the Europeans forced the natives to move out of their areas.  After the Europeans, Asians also started settling in these countries in the 19th and 20th centuries.  Now Europeans and Asians are in majority in these countries, while the number of natives has decreased.

3. History in textbooks:  Earlier history only told that Europeans discovered America and Australia.  Natives were rarely mentioned, and they were shown as enemies.

4. Anthropology and Biographies:  Anthropologists in the US began studying indigenous peoples in the 1840s.  Since the 1960s, indigenous people have been encouraged to write their histories and tell their stories.  Their written histories and stories can be read today.

European Imperialism

• Spain and Portugal's influence declined:  After the seventeenth century, Spain and Portugal did not expand their American empires.  Countries such as France, Holland, and England expanded their trade activities and colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

• British beginnings and the role of profit:  Initially the British did not have the objective of establishing colonies.  By the eighteenth century it became clear that the possibility of profit motivated them to establish colonies.

• From trade to power in South Asia:  Trading companies (such as the East India Company) gradually became political powers.  Expanded their territories by defeating local rulers.  Collected taxes from landowners while continuing the old administrative system.  Built railways, mines, and large plantations to facilitate trade.

• Colonialism in Africa:  Except for South Africa, Europeans were initially confined to the coasts.  They entered the interior areas only at the end of the 19th century.  After this, agreements were made among European countries to divide the African colonies among themselves.

'The Settler' 

• The term settler was used  for the Dutch in South Africa,  for the British in Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia, and  for the Europeans in the Americas.  English was the main official language in these colonies.  In Canada, French was the official language along with English.

Natives of North America

• Early arrivals:  30,000 years ago people came to North America from Asia across the Bering Strait land bridge  10,000 years ago, they moved south during the Ice Age  The oldest human artifact (an arrowhead) is 11,000 years old.

• Stable life and population growth:  The climate stabilized about 5,000 years ago, which increased the population.  People lived in groups in villages built near river valleys.  They ate fish, meat and grew corn and vegetables.

• Hunting and Lifestyle:  These people hunted bison for food.  They hunted only as much as they needed. They  did not farm on a large scale and produce surplus produce.

• Lack of political system:  Monarchies or empires did not develop like in Central and South America.  They were satisfied with the food and shelter they got from the land rather than 'ownership' of it.

• Traditions and social relations:  Emphasized formal relationships and the exchange of gifts.  Several languages ​​were spoken, but none were written.

• Art and knowledge:  They were skilled craftsmen and weaved beautiful fabrics.  They were adept at reading the earth, climate, and landscapes, just as educated people read books.  This is a short and simple introduction to the lives and culture of the native peoples of North America.

Competing with the Europeans

• Friendly Beginnings:  European traders who arrived in North America in the 17th century found the local people to be friendly and helpful.  The European traders came to trade in fish and fur.

• Trade and Exchange:  The French near the Mississippi observed that native peoples regularly exchanged handicrafts and foodstuffs.  The Europeans exchanged blankets, iron pots, guns, and wine for native products.  Iron pots began to replace pottery, and guns supplemented bows and arrows in hunting.

• Effect of alcohol and tobacco:  The local people first got introduced to alcohol from the Europeans and became addicted to it.  Alcohol addiction helped the Europeans to impose their terms on trade.  At the same time, the Europeans learned to consume tobacco from the local people. This is a simple description of the initial contact and mutual influences between Europeans and local people in North America.

Traditional beliefs and European influence

• Concept of Civilization:  18th-century Europeans considered literacy, organized religion, and urban life to be 'civilized'.  They found the Native Americans 'uncivilized' because they did not meet these criteria.  Some European thinkers, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, called them 'noble savages' who were free from the evils of civilization.  On the other hand, William Wordsworth described their imagination and emotions as limited.

• European trade and native attitudes:  The natives viewed trade as a form of friendship, while the Europeans saw it as a means of profit.  European traders took fish and fur from the natives in exchange for blankets, pottery, guns, and alcohol.  Natives, unfamiliar with alcohol, became addicted to it, allowing the Europeans to impose their terms.

• European settlement and land use:  European colonists cleared forests and used them for agriculture.  The natives saw forests as a part of life, while the Europeans saw farms and profits there.  For European farmers, land ownership was important, while the natives saw it as wrong.

• Expansion of the United States and Canada:  The United States and Canada came into existence in the 18th century, but their current territory developed later.  The United States purchased or conquered land from France, Russia (Alaska), and Mexico.  Native peoples were forced to retreat as the land expanded.

• Migration and development of agriculture:  Small farmers and landless people from Europe came to America and became land owners.  They grew new crops (rice, cotton) and protected their fields by exterminating animals.  The invention of barbed wire in 1873 gave them further protection.

• Slavery and civil rights:  African slaves were brought to the southern US to work on plantations because native slaves did not live long enough.  Northern states fought to abolish slavery in 1861-65, and abolitionists won.  Despite the end of slavery, African-Americans continued to struggle for civil liberties until the 20th century.

• Canadian Autonomy:  The British conquered Canada from France in 1763.  French settlers demanded autonomy.  The problem was solved by organizing Canada as a federation of autonomous states in 1867  This is a simplified description of European settlement, their relationship with the natives, and their cultural and political influence.

Eviction of original residents from their land

• Land deals and fraud:  As the United States expanded its settlements, land deals were made with the natives.  They were paid very little in the deals, and often their land was taken away through fraud.  Promises of payment were also not kept.

• European view of the natives:  Officials did not see eviction as wrong, arguing that the natives did not use the land properly.  The natives were seen as 'lazy' and 'mortal' because they were not interested in producing for the market or adopting European culture (e.g. learning English, wearing European clothes).

• Destruction of natural resources:  Prairies were cleared for agriculture and bison were killed.  A French visitor wrote that "primitive man will perish along with the wild animals."

• Westward push and 'reservations':  Natives were pushed westward and promised 'permanent land'.  But if minerals (gold, lead, oil) were found on their land, they would be evicted again.  They were confined to small areas called 'reservations', which were often not their traditional lands.

• Battles and rebellions:  The natives fought for their land.  Between 1865 and 1890, the US army crushed many rebellions.  This is a simple description of the injustice done to the natives and their dispossession from their land.

Gold rush and growth of industries

• The beginning of the Gold Rush:  Traces of gold were found in California (United States) in 1840. This led to the "Gold Rush", in which thousands of Europeans arrived in America hoping to become rich.  The discovery of gold led to the construction of railway lines across the continent.

• Railway construction and labour:  Thousands of Chinese workers were recruited to build railways.  The US railway was completed in 1870 and the Canadian railway in 1885.  Faster transportation boosted industries and agriculture.

• Industrial Revolution and Growth of Factories:  The Industrial Revolution in England was triggered by the dispossession of small farmers from their land, so that they could work in factories.  In the US and Canada, industries developed to manufacture railway equipment and agricultural machinery.  The US economy was weak in 1860, but by 1890 it had become the world's leading industrial nation.

• Large scale farming and environmental impact:  Large areas were cleared to create farmland.  By 1890, the wild buffalo were almost wiped out, ending the hunting-based livelihood of the natives.

• Contribution of Andrew Carnegie:  Andrew Carnegie, a poor immigrant from Scotland, became one of America's first millionaire industrialists.  He said, "Old nations move at a snail's pace, but the new republic is racing like an express."  This is a simple summary of the changes and their impact during the Gold Rush and the Industrial Revolution.

wave of change

• Situation by the 1920s:  A 1928 survey called "The Problems of Indian Administration" revealed poor health and education conditions among the natives.  White Americans sympathized with the natives because they were being denied their right to practice their culture and were denied civil rights.

• Indian Reorganization Act of 1934:  This law gave Native Americans the right to buy land on reservations and to borrow money.  This was an important reform for them.

• Attempts to integrate into the mainstream in the 1950s-60s:  Governments abolished special provisions for the natives and forced them to adopt European culture.  The natives were against this change.

• 'Declaration of Indian Rights' (1954):  Natives accepted citizenship on the condition that their traditions and reservations should not be interfered with.

• Protest and demand for rights in Canada:  In 1969, the Canadian government refused to accept the rights of the aborigines.  The natives protested in an organized manner.  In 1982, their aboriginal rights were accepted under a constitutional section.

• Struggle and Current Status:  Today, indigenous people are making a strong claim for their rights to their culture and sacred land.  Their numbers are much less than in the 18th century, but their struggle for rights is strong.  This is a brief description of the wave of change that played an important role in getting the rights of indigenous peoples recognized in the US and Canada.

Australia

• Early human settlement:  About 40,000 years ago the Aborigines came to Australia from New Guinea via the land bridge.  According to their traditions, they have always lived in Australia.

• Language and communities:  By the end of the 18th century, there were 350-750 communities with their own languages.  About 200 of these languages ​​are still spoken today.  Another large group called the 'Torres Strait Islanders' live in the north.

• European Arrival:  The British first arrived in Australia in 1770.  Initially, contact with Captain Cook was described as friendly.  But after Cook was murdered, the attitude of the British changed.

• Deported prisoners and land acquisition:  The early British settlers were deported prisoners.  After their imprisonment was over, they were allowed to settle in Australia.  These settlers evicted the natives from their land for farming.

• Economic Growth:  Australia's growth was slow but steady.  Sheep farms, mines, viticulture (wine production), and wheat farming strengthened the economy.  This growth was less diversified than in the US.

• Federal Capital Plan:  In 1911, the capital of Australia was suggested to be named 'Woolwheat Gold'.  This is a short and simple description of the history of Australia's indigenous peoples and European colonization.

wave of change

• The 1970s marked a change: As in North America, Australia began to understand indigenous peoples in a new light. They were seen as communities with unique cultures and a knack for understanding nature and climate. Efforts began to celebrate and preserve their stories, art, and crafts.

• Henry Reynolds and the reinterpretation of history: Henry Reynolds' book Why Weren't We Told? showed that Australian history did not begin with Captain Cook's 'discovery'. Subsequently, departments for the study of indigenous cultures were created in universities. Indigenous art and life were given a place in museums and art galleries.

• Culture and multiculturalism: 'Multiculturalism' became a state policy in Australia from 1974. In this, the cultures of the natives and the European and Asian immigrants were given equal respect. This effort helped preserve many traditional cultural heritages.

• The question of land and human rights: During the human rights movement in the 1970s it was recognised that unlike the United States, Canada, and New Zealand, Australia had not entered into any formal agreements with indigenous peoples for land acquisition. The government declared Australian land to be "terra nullius", thereby denying indigenous peoples rights.

• Acknowledgement and apology of injustice: It was recognised that indigenous peoples have a deep historical and sacred connection to the land. A public apology was made for the injustice of the forced separation of mixed-blood indigenous children from their families. This opened a new chapter in the acknowledgement and rectification of social injustice.

This change was an important step towards respecting the culture and rights of Indigenous peoples in Australia.