Temple Architecture and Sculpture Notes in English Class 11 Fine Art Chapter-6 Book-1

Most surviving art and architecture from Ancient and Medieval India is religious, mainly because domestic structures made of wood and clay have perished over time. This chapter focuses on various types of Hindu temples, with some mention of Buddhist and Jain temples. While many local village and forest shrines also existed, they were not built in stone and have largely disappeared.

Early Temples

As stupas continued to be built, Brahmanical temples and images of gods also emerged, often decorated with mythological scenes from the Puranas. Temples featured a main deity and were of three types: sandhara (with pradakshinapatha), nirandhara (without it), and sarvatobhadra (accessible from all sides). Notable sites include Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh), and Eran, Nachna-Kuthara, and Udaygiri (Madhya Pradesh), with temples typically consisting of a veranda, hall, and rear shrine.

THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE

The basic structure of a Hindu temple includes the garbhagriha (sanctum) housing the main deity, a mandapa (hall or portico) for worshippers, a spire—shikhara in North India or vimana in South India—and the deity's vahan (mount) with a dhvaj (pillar) placed in front. Temples are broadly classified into Nagara (North) and Dravida (South) styles, with the Vesara style as a mix of both. As temples evolved, they became more complex, with added symmetrical walls and niches, allowing greater space for sculptural decoration while maintaining the core shrine layout.

SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND ORNAMENTATION

The study of deity images is known as iconography, which identifies them through symbols and mythology. While the core meaning of a deity remains, its local use often reflects social or regional contexts. Each region developed its own style and variations in iconography. Temples are richly decorated with sculptures, and image placement is carefully planned—Ganga and Yamuna near the sanctum entrance in Nagara temples, dvarapalas on Dravida gateways, and mithunas, navagrahas, and yakshas at entrances. Outer walls depict different forms of the main deity and ashtadikpalas (guardians of directions). Surrounding shrines are for the deity’s family or avatars. Distinct decorative elements like gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, and kalasha are also commonly used.

THE NAGARA OR NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

What is Nagara Style?

The Nagara style is the main temple architecture of North India, characterized by temples built on a high stone platform with steps leading up. Unlike South Indian temples, it usually lacks elaborate boundary walls or gateways. The main shrine (garbhagriha) is located directly beneath the tallest tower (shikhara), highlighting its sacred importance.

Main Features of Nagara Style:

Nagara temples are built on a stone platform with steps leading up to the structure. They typically do not have large enclosing walls or entry gateways. The shikhara (tower) rises directly above the garbhagriha (sanctum). In later temples, multiple shikharas were added, giving the appearance of mountain peaks clustered together.

Sub-types of Nagara Temples

Nagara temples have three main types of shikhara (tower) based on their shape. The Latina or Rekha-Prasada type is the most common, with a square base and curved walls that rise to a tall, pointed top, usually above the main shrine (garbhagriha). The Phamsana type is broader and shorter, with a sloped roof made of flat slabs, mainly used for mandapas (pillared halls). The Valabhi type has a rectangular shape with a vaulted, wagon-shaped roof, resembling Buddhist chaitya halls, and features a rounded roof edge like ancient wooden structures.

Extra Info:

Nagara temple designs were influenced by earlier wooden and brick structures, which shaped their architectural features. The wagon-shaped roofs seen in some temples resemble those found in Buddhist chaitya caves, showing a clear link between rock-cut and later structural designs.

Central India

Common Features in Ancient Temples of North-Central India

Most Nagara-style temples were built using sandstone and often stood on high platforms with steps leading up. Many shared common architectural features like flat or curvilinear shikharas (towers), which varied depending on the time period.

Early Gupta Period Temples (4th–6th Century CE)

Udaigiri and Sanchi, located in Madhya Pradesh, are important early temple sites. These temples have flat roofs, small shrines supported by four pillars, and a simple mandapa. They are significant as the first structural Hindu temples, showing early features of the Nagara style.

Deogarh Temple (Early 6th Century CE)

The temple at Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh is built in the Panchayatana style, featuring one main shrine with four smaller shrines at the corners (total 5). It has a curved shikhara of the Latina (Rekha-Prasada) type, showing early Nagara architecture. Dedicated to Vishnu, it features three main reliefs: Sheshashayana (south), Nara-Narayana (east), and Gajendramoksha (west). The temple faces west, which is unusual, as most temples face east or north. Sculptures of Ganga and Yamuna appear at the doorway. It was once mistakenly identified as the Dasavatara Temple, referring to Vishnu’s ten avatars.

Khajuraho Temples (10th Century CE)

Located in Madhya Pradesh, the famous Khajuraho temples were built by the Chandela kings, around 400 years after the Deogarh temple. These temples represent a more advanced phase of Nagara architecture, known for their intricate carvings, elevated platforms, and elaborately sculpted walls and shikharas.

Lakshmana Temple (954 CE)

The Khajuraho Vishnu temple, built by King Dhanga, is a fine example of classic Nagara architecture. It stands on a high stone platform with stairs, featuring a tall central shikhara surrounded by four smaller corner shrines. The towers rise in a pyramidal and curved form, ending with an amalak (fluted disc) and a kalash (pot) at the top. The temple includes balconies and verandahs, making it more complex than the earlier Deogarh temple.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple

The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is considered the finest example of Central Indian temple architecture. It is renowned for its large size, rich carvings, perfect symmetry, and highly detailed sculptures and ornamentation, reflecting the artistic peak of the Chandela dynasty.

Erotic Sculptures at Khajuraho

The erotic images (mithun couples) found in Khajuraho temples symbolize life, fertility, and the cosmic union of male and female energies. These sculptures are strategically placed near entrances, on outer walls, and between the mandapa and sanctum. The style is marked by full relief carvings with sharp facial features, such as high noses, pointed chins, and slanted eyes, showcasing refined craftsmanship and symbolic depth.

Chausath Yogini Temple

The Chausath Yogini Temple at Khajuraho is the oldest temple at the site, built before the 10th century using rough granite. It is dedicated to the 64 yoginis, female deities associated with Tantric worship. Similar temples existed across Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu between the 7th and 10th centuries, though very few have survived today.

West India

Temples in north-western India, especially Gujarat and Rajasthan, show rich diversity in style and material, using sandstone, basalt, and notably, soft white marble—seen in Jain temples of Mount Abu and Ranakpur. The Samlaji site in Gujarat reflects a mix of regional and post-Gupta styles with grey schist sculptures from the 6th–8th centuries CE. A major monument is the Sun Temple at Modhera, built by Raja Bhimdev I in 1026 CE. It features a grand stepped tank, Surya Kund, with 108 miniature shrines and a beautifully carved open sabha mandapa. The design shows influence from Gujarat’s woodcarving tradition. The main shrine’s walls are left plain to allow sunlight to reach the sanctum during equinoxes.

East India

India’s temple architecture is diverse and deeply connected with regional traditions. In Eastern India, the temples of the North-East (especially Assam), Bengal, and Odisha showcase a variety of artistic styles, local materials, and historical influences. Let’s take a closer look at how each region developed its own distinct architectural identity.

Temples of North-East India (Assam)

The temple heritage of Assam is ancient, but it’s difficult to study in detail because many early structures have been rebuilt using brick or concrete. However, the use of terracotta (baked clay) in early religious art, especially in Bengal until the 7th century, gives us clues about the region’s temple traditions.

Historical Highlights:

A 6th-century door frame from DaParvatia (Tezpur) and sculptures from Rangagora (Tinsukia) show clear influence of Gupta art, reflecting its refined elegance. This post-Gupta style continued in the region until the 10th century. Later, between the 12th and 14th centuries, the migration of the Tai people from Upper Burma led to a fusion of their artistic traditions with the Pala style of Bengal, giving rise to the distinctive and regional Ahom style.

Famous Temple:

The Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, built in the 17th century, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and is one of the most important Shakti Peeths in India. It holds great religious significance and is a major center of Tantric worship.

Temples of Bengal (West Bengal and Bangladesh)

Bengal’s temple art evolved through two major phases. The Pala style (9th–11th century) was marked by Buddhist influence, featuring elegant, detailed sculptures and smooth forms. This was followed by the Sena style (11th–13th century), which reflected strong Hindu influence, focusing more on deities like Shiva and Vishnu, and introducing new architectural and sculptural elements.

Architectural Features:

Temples from the Pala period feature a tall, curving shikhara topped with a prominent amalaka (crown-like stone). A notable example is the Siddheshvara Mahadeva Temple in Barakar (Burdwan), which closely resembles the temple architecture of Odisha, showcasing the stylistic influence across regions.

Disappearing Temples:

Many temples at Telkupi in Purulia were submerged due to dam construction. They showed awareness of Nagara styles common in North India.

Local Influences:

The temples of Bengal were influenced by the bamboo hut roofs found in local villages. This distinctive curved roof, known as the Bangla roof, became a popular architectural feature and was later adopted even in Mughal buildings, blending regional styles with imperial architecture.

Terracotta Temples (Mughal Period Onward):

In the 17th century, Bengal witnessed the emergence of beautiful terracotta brick temples. These temples combined local hut-inspired roofs (Bangla style), Islamic arches and domes, and features from Pala architecture. Major temple sites include Vishnupur, Bankura, Burdwan, and Birbhum, showcasing a rich blend of regional and cultural influences.

Temples of Odisha (Ancient Kalinga)

Odisha temples are part of the Nagara style but have unique features and local names for components.

Three Main Styles:

Odisha temple architecture features three main types of structures:

• Rekha Deul: A tall, curving tower (shikhara), usually built over the sanctum (garbhagriha).

• Pidha Deul: A stepped, pyramid-like structure, often used for mandapas or assembly halls.

• Khakhra Deul: Has a barrel-shaped roof, inspired by the shape of a traditional bamboo hut or vaulted hall.

Temple Cities:

The three major centers of temple architecture in Odisha are Bhubaneswar (ancient Tribhuvanesvara), Puri, and Konark. These sites are renowned for their grand temples, intricate carvings, and distinct architectural styles that reflect the rich cultural and religious heritage of the region.

Key Features:

In Odisha temple architecture, the shikhara, known as the deul, rises vertically and then curves inward at the top. The mandapa or prayer hall is called the jagamohana. Temples typically have a square plan, with richly carved exteriors and plain interiors. Most are enclosed within boundary walls, creating a distinct and sacred temple complex.

The Marvel of Konark:

The Sun Temple at Konark, built around 1240 CE, is designed like a giant stone chariot with 12 massive carved wheels and 7 sculpted horses. Its original shikhara, once towering at 70 meters, collapsed in the 19th century, but the surviving jagamohana remains one of the largest enclosed spaces in Indian temple architecture. The temple walls feature intricate carvings, and a famous green stone sculpture of Surya (Sun God) stands on the southern side. The temple was ingeniously aligned to allow sunlight to enter the inner sanctum through the eastern doorway.

The Hills

A unique architectural style developed in the hill regions of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal, and Kashmir, blending Gandhara, Gupta, and local wooden traditions. In Kashmir, influenced by nearby Gandhara sites and post-Gupta centres like Sarnath and Mathura, both Hindu and Buddhist art flourished. Temples often combined stone rekha-prasada or latina style sanctums with wooden mandapas, sometimes forming pagoda-like structures. The Pandrethan temple, built on a tank during the 8th–9th centuries (Karkota period), is a Hindu temple with a sloping roof suited to Kashmir’s snowy climate, modestly ornamented with elephant carvings and a decorated doorway. Chamba sculptures, like Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at the Laksna-Devi Mandir, reflect a mix of local and post-Gupta styles and Kashmir’s metalwork tradition. In Kumaon, temples at Jageshwar and Champavat are fine examples of regional Nagara architecture.

THE DRAVIDA OR SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE

South India is home to some of the most awe-inspiring temples in the world. These temples not only represent religious devotion but also showcase a rich architectural legacy, especially under the Dravida style.

Dravida Temples vs Nagara Temples

Unlike the Nagara style of North India, Dravida temples are enclosed within compound walls, which feature towering entrance gateways called gopurams. The main temple tower, or vimana, rises in a stepped pyramid form, differing from the curving shikhara of the North. In Dravida architecture, the term shikhara refers only to the small dome-like crown on top of the vimana, similar to the amalaka and kalasha in Nagara temples.

Entrance and Interior Features

In South Indian temples, the entrance to the sanctum (garbhagriha) is usually guarded by fierce sculptures called dvarapalas, instead of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna seen in the North. Most temple complexes also include a temple tank or water reservoir. Small shrines may be housed within the main vimana or placed around the main temple. Unlike the multiple shikharas of North Indian temples, South Indian temples typically feature a single prominent vimana.

Temples and Urban Life

As temple towns expanded over centuries, additional boundary walls and gopurams were added, making the main shrine often the oldest and smallest part of the complex, while the outermost walls and towers became the newest and tallest. A perfect example is the Srirangam Temple in Tiruchirapally, which has seven rectangular enclosure walls, each with its own majestic gopuram.

Temple Towns and Their Role

Temples in Tamil Nadu were more than just religious centers—they served as hubs of administration, culture, and economic activity. Major temple towns like Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai, and Kumbakonam flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries, thriving under strong royal patronage.

Shapes of Dravida Temples

Dravida temples come in five basic shapes based on the plan and vimana:

Pallavas: The Pioneers of Dravida Architecture

The Pallava dynasty, which began around the 2nd century CE in Andhra and later moved to Tamil Nadu, had its main temple-building phase between the 6th and 8th centuries. They were pioneers in constructing both rock-cut and structural temples. Rulers like Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) were major patrons of temple art. The coastal town of Mahabalipuram, named after Mamalla, emerged as a significant temple site during this period.

The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram

The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, built by Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) around 700–728 CE, is unique for housing three shrines—two dedicated to Shiva (facing east and west) and one to Vishnu as Anantashayana in the center. The temple complex includes an early gopuram, a water tank, and carvings of Nandi, Shiva’s mount. Unfortunately, many of its fine details have been eroded by the salt-laden sea air over time.

The Chola Marvel: Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur

The Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja Chola I in 1009 CE, was the largest and tallest temple of its time. Its vimana rises to 70 meters, topped by an octagonal stupika, with a kalasha (finial) over 3 meters tall. The temple features two large gopuras adorned with detailed sculptures. Inside, it houses a massive Shiva lingam, with walls decorated with murals and mythological sculptures. Hundreds of stucco figures, likely added during the Maratha period, further enrich its grandeur.

Final Thoughts

The Dravida style of temple architecture is not just about structure — it's about grandeur, symbolism, and devotion. From the stone-carved legacy of the Pallavas to the towering temples of the Cholas, South India’s temple towns remain living monuments of an artistic and spiritual golden age.

Architecture in the Deccan

What is Vesara Style?

Vesara is a hybrid style of temple architecture that blends elements of both Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) styles. It became prominent in Karnataka after the 7th century CE and is especially seen in the architectural works of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Hoysalas.

Rashtrakutas & Kailashnath Temple (Ellora)

By 750 CE, the Rashtrakutas rose to power in the Deccan, replacing the early Western Chalukyas. Their most iconic achievement is the Kailashnath Temple at Ellora, dedicated to Lord Shiva. Built in the Dravida style, it features a Nandi shrine, a gopuram-like gateway, a towering vimana (30 meters high), and several subsidiary shrines. Remarkably, the entire temple was carved out of a single rock (monolithic). Its sculptures are larger than life, radiating energy, dynamism, and grandeur.

Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th Century)

The Chalukya dynasty, founded by Pulakesin I in 543 CE, had two main architectural phases. In the early phase, they built rock-cut caves like the Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole, known for its striking Nataraja image with saptamatrikas. Figures from this period have slim bodies, tall cylindrical crowns, and finely pleated dhotis. In the later phase, the Chalukyas constructed structural temples and introduced a hybrid Vesara style, blending features of both Nagara and Dravida traditions.

Important Chalukyan Temples

These temples reflect experimentation, innovation, and cross-cultural influences.

Hoysalas of Karnataka (12th Century)

The Hoysalas rose to power after the decline of the Cholas and Pandyas, with their capital region in Mysore, in the Southern Deccan. They built around 100 temples, with the most famous examples located at Belur, Halebid, and Somnathpur, known for their intricate architecture and detailed stone carvings.

Key Features:

Hoysala temples are known for their star-shaped ground plan (called the stellate plan) and are built using soapstone, a soft material that allows for highly detailed carvings. The temples are richly decorated, especially with intricate carvings of jewellery worn by deities. Architecturally, they represent a blend of Dravida and Nagara styles, forming the unique Vesara style.

Hoysaleshvara Temple (Halebid, 1150 CE)

The Hoysalas' Halebid Temple, built in dark schist stone, is dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja. It features a double shrine with a large mandapa used for dance and music, and a Nandi pavilion in front of each sanctum. Although the main vimana (tower) is lost, miniature versions of it still survive. The temple walls are richly adorned with carvings of gods, animals, and mythological scenes, including the famous elephant frieze, where no two elephants are alike, showcasing incredible craftsmanship and detail.

Vijayanagara Empire (Founded in 1336 CE)

The Vijayanagara Empire, with its capital at Vijayanagara ("City of Victory"), developed a distinctive temple style by blending Dravida architecture with Islamic elements. Inspired by Chola temple planning and sculptures, Vijayanagara art featured pillared halls, large mandapas, and towering gopurams, with some sculptures reflecting foreign influences. Knowledge about this period comes from foreign travellers like Niccolò de’ Conti (Italian), Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz, and Duarte Barbosa (Portuguese), and Abd al-Razzaq (Afghan), as well as literary records in Sanskrit and Telugu.

BUDDHIST AND JAIN ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

1. Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain Art Developed Together

From the 5th to 14th century, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain art flourished together, often in close proximity. Ellora is a prime example, housing monuments from all three religions in one complex. Sites like Badami, Khajuraho, and Kannauj also feature temples of two different religions built near each other, reflecting a period of religious coexistence and artistic exchange.

2. Buddhist Art Under the Palas (8th–12th Century)

After the fall of the Guptas, Eastern India (especially Bihar and Bengal) remained relatively stable, leading to the rise of the Pala dynasty in the 8th century. The second ruler, Dharmapala, became especially powerful and significantly expanded the empire. The Pala economy was mainly based on agriculture and international trade, contributing to their prosperity and influence in the region.

3. Bodhgaya and Mahabodhi Temple

Bodhgaya is the sacred site where Siddhartha attained enlightenment and became the Buddha. The first shrine was built by Ashoka, and the current Mahabodhi Temple dates back to the 7th century, though its present form is a result of Colonial-era reconstruction. Architecturally, it has a narrow Nagara-like design but rises vertically like Dravida temples. The sculptures found in the temple belong to the Pala Period (8th century), reflecting the region’s artistic heritage.

4. Nalanda Mahavihara

Nalanda was an ancient Buddhist university known for its many monasteries and vibrant intellectual life. Founded by Kumaragupta I in the 5th century CE, it taught all major schools of Buddhism—Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Monks and scholars came from across Asia, including China, Tibet, Central Asia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma. Nalanda made major contributions to art and education, with sculptures and manuscripts often taken abroad by visiting pilgrims, making it a renowned centre of Buddhist learning and artistic production.

5. Nalanda School of Art

Sculpture during the Pala period used materials like stucco, stone, and bronze, with a style influenced by Gupta art from Sarnath. These sculptures were three-dimensional, not flat, and featured delicate ornamentation, detailed back slabs, and a neat, uncluttered composition.

Bronze Sculptures (7th–12th century) mostly depicted Mahayana Buddhist deities such as Avalokiteshvara, Manjusri, various Buddhas, and Nagarjuna. In later periods, Vajrayana deities like Vajrasharada, Khasarpana, and crowned Buddhas became more common, reflecting changes in Buddhist practice and belief.

6. Other Important Buddhist Sites

Sirpur (Chhattisgarh) was an important temple site featuring both Hindu and Buddhist temples, built in the Early Odisha style (550–800 CE). Its sculptures closely resemble those of Nalanda in style and detailing.

Odisha Monasteries like Lalitagiri, Vajragiri, and Ratnagiri were major centres of Buddhist learning and art, contributing richly to Vajrayana traditions.

Nagapattinam (Tamil Nadu) was a thriving Buddhist port town until the Chola period, with active trade links to Sri Lanka. Excavations here have uncovered Chola-style bronze and stone sculptures, showing Buddhist influence in South Indian art.

7. Jain Architecture Across India

Like the Hindus, the Jains also built numerous temples across India, showcasing their devotion and architectural skill. However, fewer Jain temples are found in hilly regions, as most were constructed in more accessible plains or urban centers.

Important Jain Sites:

8. Shravanabelagola (Karnataka)

The statue of Bahubali (Gomateshwara), standing 18 meters tall, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing statue. It was built by Camundaraya, a minister of the Ganga kings, and is a major symbol of Jain devotion and artistic achievement.

9. Materials and Preservation

Ancient sculptures were made from materials like stone, terracotta, and bronze, which have survived over time. However, those made from wood, ivory, silver, and gold were often lost due to decay or being reused. Many sculptures were originally painted, but most of the pigments have not survived. Today, only a few painted murals remain, preserved in temples and caves.