Psychological Disorders Notes in English Class 12 Psychology Chapter-4 Book-1

Introduction

Many people experience deep unhappiness, anxiety, and dissatisfaction, feeling overwhelmed by life's challenges. As Carl Jung noted, recognizing our darker side is part of being whole and human. While it's normal to feel nervous or anxious at times, some individuals react extremely to stress, leading to psychological disorders—also known as mental disorders. These disorders often stem from failures in adaptation, where individuals are unable to adjust their behavior to meet changing life demands. Abnormal Psychology is the field that studies such maladaptive behaviors, exploring their causes, effects, and possible treatments.

CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY AND

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Defining abnormality is challenging, but most definitions share the four Ds: deviance (unusual behavior), distress (emotional discomfort), dysfunction (interference with daily life), and danger (risk to self or others). One approach sees abnormality as a deviation from social norms, which vary by culture and time. Another approach views it as maladaptive behavior—anything that hinders personal well-being and growth, even if it conforms to social expectations. Misunderstandings and stigma around psychological disorders still persist, often leading to shame and avoidance of treatment. In reality, these disorders are simply failures in adaptation and should be treated like any other illness, with understanding and care.

Historical Background 

1. Supernatural Approach

In ancient beliefs, abnormal behavior was thought to be caused by evil spirits, ghosts, or black magic. The cure involved exorcism, using prayers or rituals to drive out the spirits. A shaman or ojha acted as a medium, believed to communicate with the spirits and guide the healing process.

2. Biological/Organic Approach

The biological model explains abnormal behavior as a result of problems in the body or brain, such as chemical imbalances, genetic factors, or brain injuries. Modern research supports this view for many mental disorders, and treating the underlying biological causes—like with medication or medical care—often leads to improvement in mental health.

3. Psychological Approach

The psychological model focuses on issues in thinking, emotions, and perception, viewing mental disorders as the result of internal conflicts, unresolved trauma, or faulty coping mechanisms. It emphasizes how the mind’s inner processes contribute to abnormal behavior.

Major Historical Developments

Classification of Psychological Disorders

Why classify?

Classification of mental disorders helps psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers to communicate clearly, understand the causes of disorders, and effectively plan appropriate treatment, ensuring consistency and clarity in mental health care.

Major Classification Systems

1. DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition)

The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) is published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) and is primarily used in the USA. It provides clinical criteria and a detailed list of symptoms to help diagnose various mental disorders accurately and consistently.

2. ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases – 10th Edition)

The ICD (International Classification of Diseases) is published by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is officially used in India and worldwide. It offers a description of the main features of mental disorders along with diagnostic guidelines, helping health professionals identify and treat conditions consistently across countries.

Key Point:

Modern psychology uses a combined or biopsychosocial approach to understand psychological disorders, considering the interaction of biological factors (like brain functioning and genetics), psychological factors (such as thoughts and emotions), and social factors (including relationships and environment) to provide a more complete understanding of mental health.

FACTORS UNDERLYING ABNORMAL

BEHAVIOUR

Why Multiple Approaches?

Abnormal behavior is complex, so psychologists use various models to explain, understand, and treat it. These models focus on different aspects—biological (like brain and genetics), psychological (thoughts and emotions), socio-cultural (social roles and environment), and interactional or combined factors, which consider how these elements work together.

1. Biological Model

• Key Idea:

• Abnormal behaviour has a physical/biochemical basis.

• Causes:

The biological factors contributing to abnormal behavior include faulty genes, imbalances in brain chemicals (neurotransmitters), hormonal disturbances, brain injuries, and malnutrition. These physical or genetic issues can affect how the brain functions, leading to various psychological disorders.

Neurotransmitter Links:

Genetics:

Mental illnesses like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression are influenced by multiple genes, not just one.

2. Psychological Models

A. Psychodynamic Model (Freud)

The psychodynamic model sees abnormal behavior as rooted in unconscious conflicts from early childhood. It focuses on the interaction between the id (instincts), ego (rational self), and superego (moral values). When these parts are in conflict, it can lead to mental illness, as the individual struggles to manage inner emotional tension.

B. Behavioural Model

The behavioral model explains that abnormal behavior is learned, just like normal behavior, through experiences. It involves three main types of learning: classical conditioning (associating events), operant conditioning (learning through rewards or punishments), and social learning (observing and imitating others). The key idea is that since behavior is learned, it can also be unlearned or modified through proper techniques.

C. Cognitive Model

The cognitive model views mental illness as the result of faulty thinking, such as negative self-beliefs, irrational thoughts, and overgeneralization (like thinking "I’m a failure" after one bad experience). It focuses on identifying and changing these thought patterns to improve emotional well-being and behavior.

D. Humanistic-Existential Model

The humanistic-existential model emphasizes a person's inner potential, self-growth, and the search for life’s meaning. Humanists believe people are naturally good and aim for self-actualization, while existentialists stress the importance of personal responsibility in making choices. According to this model, mental illness arises when individuals avoid responsibility or experience a lack of meaning and purpose in life.

3. Socio-Cultural Model

The socio-cultural model explains that mental health is deeply influenced by social and cultural factors such as war, violence, discrimination, poverty, job-related stress, and cultural or family norms. These external pressures can increase the risk of developing psychological disorders by affecting how individuals experience and cope with life.

Key Factors:

According to the socio-cultural perspective, family structure plays a key role—over-involved or “enmeshed” families can limit a person’s independence and growth. Social networks also matter, as isolation increases the risk of depression. Additionally, social labeling—such as being called “mentally ill”—can lead individuals to conform to that label, as explained by the labeling theory.

4. Diathesis-Stress Model (Interactional Approach)

A widely accepted model combining biological and environmental factors.

Three Components:

The diathesis-stress model explains that mental disorders result from a combination of diathesis—a person’s genetic or biological vulnerability—and stressors, such as challenging life events. While the diathesis acts as a risk factor, the actual disorder may only appear when stressful experiences trigger it.

Example: A person genetically at risk for depression may not develop it unless exposed to major stress like loss or trauma.

MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety disorders are among the most common psychological disorders, marked by intense, excessive fear or worry that interferes with daily life. While mild anxiety is normal in situations like exams or public speaking, disorders involve distressing symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, dizziness, shortness of breath, and trembling. Types of anxiety disorders include generalised anxiety disorder (constant, vague worry), panic disorder (sudden intense anxiety attacks), and phobias (irrational fears). Phobias are classified into specific phobias (e.g., fear of animals), social phobia (fear of embarrassment in social situations), and agoraphobia (fear of leaving safe places). Another type is separation anxiety disorder (SAD), especially seen in children, where extreme fear of being away from attachment figures leads to clinginess and intense distress.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) involves recurring, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviours (compulsions), such as constant hand washing or checking. These actions interfere with daily life, and individuals feel unable to control them. Other related disorders include hoarding disorder, trichotillomania (hair-pulling), and excoriation (skin-picking). Trauma- and stressor-related disorders, like Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), occur after severe trauma (e.g., disasters, accidents, violence) and involve symptoms like flashbacks, nightmares, and emotional numbness. Adjustment Disorder and Acute Stress Disorder are also part of this category, triggered by stressful life changes or events.

Disorders

Somatic symptom and related disorders involve physical symptoms without any medical cause, often rooted in psychological distress. In somatic symptom disorder, individuals constantly worry about physical complaints, disrupting their daily life. Illness anxiety disorder focuses more on anxiety and fear of having a serious illness, despite no evidence. People remain worried even after medical reassurance. Conversion disorder involves sudden loss of physical functions like paralysis or blindness, usually triggered by stress. Though no medical issue is found, the symptoms are real and distressing for the person.

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative disorders involve a disconnection between thoughts, emotions, and identity, often as a way to block out painful experiences. They include Dissociative Amnesia, marked by memory loss without physical injury, sometimes leading to dissociative fugue, where a person travels, assumes a new identity, and forgets their past. Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder) features two or more distinct identities, usually linked to childhood trauma. Depersonalisation/Derealisation Disorder causes a sense of detachment from oneself or reality, as if living in a dream. These disorders are often stress-related and vary in intensity.

Depressive Disorders

Depression is one of the most common mental disorders, involving persistent sadness, loss of interest, and various physical and emotional symptoms. While it can refer to normal sadness after a loss, Major Depressive Disorder includes severe symptoms like sleep problems, fatigue, agitation, poor concentration, and thoughts of death or suicide. It may also involve guilt or feelings of worthlessness. Risk factors include genetics, age, gender (women are more prone), negative life experiences, and lack of social support.

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Bipolar and Related Disorders

What is Bipolar I Disorder?

Bipolar disorder, formerly known as Manic-Depressive Disorder, involves alternating episodes of mania—characterized by extreme energy, impulsive behavior, and excitement—and depression, marked by low mood, sadness, and hopelessness. These mood swings may be separated by periods of normal mood, making the condition unpredictable.

Types of Bipolar Disorders:

There are different types of bipolar disorders. Bipolar I Disorder includes episodes of full mania and major depression. Bipolar II Disorder involves hypomania (a milder form of mania) along with major depressive episodes. Cyclothymic Disorder is a chronic condition with milder mood swings that don't meet the full criteria for Bipolar I or II but still cause noticeable emotional ups and downs.

Suicide – Causes, Risks, and Prevention

Causes and Risk Factors:

Suicidal behavior arises from a complex interaction of biological, psychological, genetic, social, cultural, and environmental factors. It is often linked to mental disorders such as depression and alcohol or substance abuse, and is triggered by major life stressors like abuse, violence, natural disasters, loss, or isolation. A previous suicide attempt is considered the strongest risk factor for future suicidal behavior.

Warning Signs in Students:

Warning signs of suicidal risk in young people may include a sudden drop in grades or school attendance, loss of interest in activities they once enjoyed, and behavioral changes such as misconduct, smoking, alcohol or drug use. Additionally, withdrawing from others or being frequently absent without explanation can signal emotional distress and should not be ignored.

Why It Happens:

People at risk of suicide often feel emotionally overwhelmed and see no way out of their pain or distress. They may experience intense hopelessness, isolation, and have difficulty with problem-solving and coping, which can lead them to believe that suicide is the only solution.

Prevention Measures (WHO Recommendations)

Preventing suicide involves several key strategies: limiting access to means such as poison or weapons, training the media to report suicide responsibly, and enforcing alcohol regulations. It also includes the early identification and treatment of mental health issues, training health professionals, and offering support to those who have attempted suicide. Providing strong community and emotional support is essential to help individuals feel connected, valued, and safe.

How to Support Students in Distress

To strengthen self-esteem, it's important to highlight positive life experiences and help individuals build physical, social, and vocational skills. Encouraging open and trustful communication fosters emotional safety, while setting SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) helps build a sense of purpose, progress, and self-worth.

Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders

What is Schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a severe psychotic disorder that affects a person’s thinking, perception, emotions, and behavior, leading to serious difficulties in personal life, social relationships, and work or school performance. Key symptoms include delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that aren’t there), emotional disturbances (like flat or inappropriate emotions), and motor issues (rigid or erratic movements). Schizophrenia causes a high emotional and financial burden, impacting not just the individual but also their family, and typically requires long-term treatment and care.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia 

Schizophrenia is a serious psychotic disorder affecting thoughts, emotions, perception, behaviour, and motor functions. Symptoms are grouped into three types:

1. Positive Symptoms (Excess or Additions)

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia are pathological excesses or bizarre behaviors not seen in healthy individuals. These include delusions—false beliefs such as persecution ("someone is spying on me"), reference ("TV is sending me messages"), grandeur ("I am a king"), and control ("someone is controlling my mind"). Disorganized thinking and speech may show as derailment (jumping between topics), neologisms (making up words), and perseveration (repeating the same ideas). Hallucinations are false perceptions, especially auditory (hearing voices), followed by visual, tactile, somatic, gustatory, and olfactory types. Another symptom is inappropriate affect, where emotions don’t match the situation—like laughing at sad news.

2. Negative Symptoms (Deficits or Absences)

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia refer to pathological losses or a lack of normal functions. Examples include alogia (poverty of speech), blunted or flat affect (reduced emotional expression), avolition (lack of motivation or interest in activities), and social withdrawal, where the person avoids interaction and becomes absorbed in fantasy or inner thoughts. These symptoms often make daily functioning more difficult.

3. Psychomotor Symptoms

Psychomotor symptoms in schizophrenia involve abnormalities in movement. These include catatonic stupor, where the person remains motionless and silent, catatonic rigidity, involving stiff, unmoving posture, and catatonic posturing, where the individual holds bizarre or unusual poses for long periods. These symptoms can severely affect a person’s ability to function normally.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

These disorders begin in childhood (before school age) and affect personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning.

1. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is marked by three main features: inattention (difficulty concentrating, forgetfulness, easily distracted), hyperactivity (restlessness, constant movement, excessive talking), and impulsivity (acting without thinking, interrupting others, difficulty waiting turns). These symptoms interfere with daily functioning in school, work, or social settings.

2. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by core symptoms such as impaired social interaction (avoiding eye contact, not responding to others’ emotions), communication difficulties (delayed or absent speech, repetitive or unusual language), and restricted, repetitive behaviors like rocking, hand-flapping, or lining up toys. Individuals with ASD often have a strong need for routine, and about 70% also experience intellectual disability, affecting overall development and daily functioning.

3. Intellectual Disability

Intellectual Disability is defined as having an IQ below 70 along with significant difficulties in adaptive behavior, which includes communication, daily living skills, social interaction, and academic performance. These challenges begin before the age of 18, affecting the individual’s ability to function independently.

4. Specific Learning Disorder

Specific Learning Disabilities (SLDs) are marked by difficulties in particular academic areas such as reading (dyslexia), writing (dysgraphia), and math (dyscalculia). These issues typically become noticeable during the early school years, when a child consistently performs below average in specific skills. However, with extra help and proper support, children with SLDs can make significant progress.

Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders

Disorders in this category include Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder. Children with ODD show extreme stubbornness, irritability, and defiance, often justifying their behavior as a response to unfair demands. Conduct Disorder involves aggressive and antisocial behaviors like harming others, damaging property, theft, and serious rule-breaking. Aggression may be verbal, physical, hostile, or bullying in nature. Eating disorders common among youth include Anorexia Nervosa (refusing to eat due to distorted body image), Bulimia Nervosa (bingeing and purging through vomiting or laxatives), and Binge Eating Disorder (repeated overeating without hunger, often leading to distress).

Substance-Related and Addictive

Disorders

Addictive behaviour involves harmful patterns like excessive eating leading to obesity or substance abuse such as alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, or opioids. These are categorized under substance-related and addictive disorders, which involve maladaptive behaviours caused by regular use of such substances. These substances alter how a person thinks, feels, and behaves, often leading to severe personal and social problems. This category includes a wide range of disorders, but commonly abused substances like alcohol, cocaine, and tobacco are among the most significant concerns.

Alcohol

People who abuse alcohol consume it regularly and depend on it to handle stress, but over time it harms their thinking, work, and relationships. Their body builds tolerance, requiring larger amounts to feel the same effect, and withdrawal symptoms occur if they stop. Alcoholism ruins families, careers, and leads to accidents, especially through drunk driving. Children of alcoholics often suffer from anxiety, depression, and substance abuse. Excessive drinking also causes severe damage to both physical health and mental well-being.

Heroin

Heroin use severely disrupts a person's social and work life. Regular users often become dependent, needing more of the drug over time and facing withdrawal symptoms when they stop. The greatest risk is overdose, which can slow or stop breathing by affecting the brain's respiratory centers, often leading to death.

Cocaine

Regular cocaine use can lead to abuse, where the person stays intoxicated for long periods and struggles in work and relationships. It can impair short-term memory and attention. Over time, dependence develops—more cocaine is needed to feel its effects, and stopping causes depression, fatigue, sleep issues, irritability, and anxiety. Cocaine seriously harms both mental and physical health.