Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture Notes in English Class 11 Fine Art Chapter-4 Book-1

From the second century BCE, various dynasties like the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas in the north, and the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and Vakatakas in the south and west took control of the Mauryan Empire. This period also saw the rise of major Brahmanical sects like Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Notable sculptural sites from this era include Vidisha, Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Jaggayyapeta, Mathura, Khandagiri-Udaigiri, Bhaja, and Pavani.

Bharhut

 1. About Bharhut Sculptures

The sculptures at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh are tall and resemble the Mauryan Yaksha-Yakshini figures. They are carved in low relief, using a line-based design, meaning the carvings are shallow and remain close to the surface. The figures are flat and stick to the picture plane, rather than appearing three-dimensional.

2. Narrative Style and Composition

In Bharhut sculptures, a tilted perspective was used to create a 3D illusion on flat surfaces. Early panels show main events clearly with fewer characters for clarity, while later panels include more figures and scenes. Sometimes, multiple events are shown in a single frame, while in other cases, only one event is depicted. Sculptors skillfully used every inch of space to tell detailed stories effectively.

3. Depiction of Gestures and Body

In early Bharhut art, hands were often shown folded flat on the chest, appearing stiff due to shallow carvings and a focus on smoothing stone surfaces. This limited the natural portrayal of hands and feet, making figures look flat and rigid. Over time, as carving techniques improved, artists began using deeper relief, allowing for more realistic and natural-looking human forms with better projection and movement.

4. Important Sites Showing Similar Style

Important early Buddhist sculptural sites include Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta in Andhra Pradesh. These sites are known for their symbolic and narrative carvings that reflect the development of early Buddhist art.

5. Example: Queen Mayadevi’s Dream Panel

A famous depiction in early Buddhist art shows Queen Maya reclining on a bed, while an elephant descends from the sky, symbolizing the conception of the Buddha. The elephant moving toward her womb is a form of symbolic storytelling, representing the divine nature of Buddha’s birth.

6. Example: Ruru Jataka Panel

This artwork tells the story of the Bodhisattva deer rescuing a drowning man. Two scenes are shown in one frame: the deer carrying the man on its back, and the king with his army aiming to shoot the deer. The rescued man betrays the deer by pointing it out to the king for a reward. The story highlights the moral theme of betrayal and breaking promises.

7. Use of Jataka Stories

Jataka stories, which depict the past lives of the Buddha, became an important part of stupa decoration. These narratives were used to educate and inspire devotees, teaching values like compassion, sacrifice, and truth through visual storytelling.

8. Regional Styles

As stupas spread across regions, regional variations in sculpture began to emerge. Different areas developed their own distinct artistic styles, reflecting local traditions, materials, and cultural influences.

9. Male Figures and Headgear

A consistent feature in many sculptures from the 1st–2nd century BCE is the knotted headgear, which appears across various regional styles, showing its widespread popularity during that period.

10. Where are Bharhut Sculptures Today?

Many of the original sculptures from Bharhut are now preserved in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, where they are displayed as important examples of early Buddhist art and storytelling through stone carvings.

Sanchi

The next phase of sculpture at Sanchi Stupa-1, Mathura, and Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) shows notable stylistic progress. Sanchi Stupa-1 features upper and lower circumambulatory paths and four richly carved toranas illustrating Buddha’s life and Jataka tales in high relief. Figures appear more natural and dynamic, with reduced stiffness and better spatial projection. Carving is more refined than at Bharhut, and symbolic representation of Buddha continues. Narratives become more detailed, like the siege of Kushinara and Ashoka’s visit to Ramgrama. Mathura sculptures of this period share similar quality but differ in facial features and style.

Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools

1. Important Art Centres

From the 1st century CE onwards, major centres of sculpture emerged in different regions:

• Gandhara (now in Pakistan)

• Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)

• Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)

Each of these centres developed distinct artistic styles that greatly influenced Indian art.

2. Buddha in Human Form

Earlier, the Buddha was represented symbolically through images like footprints and stupas. From the 1st century CE, artists began depicting Buddha in human form. In Mathura, the images were inspired by Yaksha sculptures, while in Gandhara, Buddha was shown with Hellenistic (Greek) features, reflecting foreign artistic influence.

3. Influences on Gandhara Art

Gandhara art was a unique blend of multiple cultural styles, combining elements of Bactrian, Parthian, and local Gandharan traditions. This fusion gave Gandhara sculptures their distinct look, especially in the depiction of the Buddha with Greco-Roman artistic features.

4. Spread of Mathura Style

Mathura’s local sculptural style became highly influential and spread widely across north India. A notable example of its reach is seen in the stupa sculptures at Sanghol in Punjab, which reflect the characteristic features of the Mathura school.

5. Other Sculptural Themes in Mathura

During this period, sculpture included a variety of religious and royal themes. Early Jain Tirthankara images were created, along with royal portraits like the headless statue of Kanishka. Vaishnava deities, mainly Vishnu with his symbols (ayudhas), and Shaiva forms like the linga and mukhalinga were also sculpted. However, Buddhist images remained the most abundant and widely produced.

6. Features of Mathura Sculpture

Sculptures from this period are known for their bold carving of large figures that project outward from the surface, giving a strong three-dimensional effect. The faces are typically round and smiling, and the bodies appear more relaxed and less bulky. Garments are finely carved, often shown covering the left shoulder, reflecting both realism and grace.

7. Evolution Over Time

• 2nd Century CE: Figures became more sensual and rotund, with fleshier forms and increased physical volume.

• 4th Century CE: Figures remained sensuous, but the volume reduced. The flesh appeared tighter, and drapery became less bulky.

• 5th–6th Century CE: Drapery was integrated with the body, creating a transparent robe effect, especially visible in Buddha images, enhancing realism and grace.

8. Important Schools of Sculpture (Later Periods)

Mathura continued to be a major centre of art, while Sarnath and Kosambi emerged as new artistic hubs. These sites contributed significantly to the development of refined and regionally distinct sculptural styles in later periods.

9. Style Comparison: Mathura vs. Sarnath

10. Important Stupa Sites (Outside Gangetic Valley)

Example: Devnimori (Gujarat)

11. Later Trends

Sculpture during this time remained mostly similar in style, with a continued focus on slender figures and the use of transparent drapery, especially in Buddhist art, maintaining elegance and refinement in form.

12. Museums to Study Early Sculptures

• Mathura Museum

• Sarnath Museum

• Varanasi Museum

• National Museum, New Delhi

• Chennai Museum

• Amaravati Museum

Buddhist Monuments of South India

Important Stupa Sites in Vengi (Andhra Pradesh):

• Jagayyapetta

• Amaravati

• Bhattiprolu

• Nagarjunakonda

• Goli

• Guntapalle

• Anakapalle

Amaravati Stupa (Mahachaitya):

The Amaravati Stupa, built around the 3rd century BCE and fully developed by the 1st–2nd century CE, features a large circular stupa (mahachaitya). It is surrounded by a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path) and a vedika (railing). Though it once had toranas (gateways) like those at Sanchi, they are now lost.

The vedika is decorated with narrative sculptures, depicting scenes from the Buddha’s life and Jataka tales. A unique aspect of Amaravati is that the stupa was entirely covered with sculptural relief slabs.

In the early phase, the Buddha was shown symbolically. In the later phase, Buddha images began appearing on drum slabs and other parts of the stupa, marking a shift toward anthropomorphic representation.

Features of Amaravati Sculpture:

Amaravati sculptures are known for their slender figures, full of movement and emotion. Artists used the tribhanga posture (three bends in the body), giving the figures a graceful and dynamic appearance. The lines are fluid and flexible, unlike the stiffer style of Sanchi.

Compositions are often complex, featuring figures in multiple postures—front, back, side, and semi-profile. A strong 3D effect is achieved through overlapping forms, varying volumes, and angular poses. Despite this complexity, the overall scenes remain clear and easy to understand, showcasing the advanced skill of Amaravati artists.

Important Narrative Example:

In Amaravati art, the Birth of Buddha is depicted with Queen Mayadevi reclining on a bed, attended by female companions. An elephant in a dream, symbolizing conception, is often carved above the scene. Some relief panels creatively combine four key events of Buddha’s birth into a single frame, showcasing the narrative richness and symbolic depth of the artwork.

Other Sites & Sculptures:

Nagarjunakonda & Goli (3rd Century CE):

Sculptures here show less animated movement compared to Amaravati. They are carved in low relief but still reflect body volume and depth. The compositions are more suggestive and integrated, blending forms smoothly into the surface.

Guntapalle (Near Eluru):

A significant rock-cut cave site, it features apsidal (U-shaped) and circular chaitya halls dating back to the 2nd century BCE, showing early Buddhist architectural design.

Anakapalle (Near Visakhapatnam):

Known for its rock-cut stupas, this site is important in the study of Buddhist monastic architecture.

Sannati (Karnataka, Gulbarga District):

This is the largest stupa site in Karnataka, richly decorated with sculptural reliefs similar in style to Amaravati, reflecting regional artistic brilliance.

Temples and Viharas:

While many stupas from ancient India have survived, only a few structured chaityas or viharas remain. A notable example is Sanchi Temple 18, an apsidal shrine featuring front pillars and a rear hall. Guntapalle also had similar early temple structures, reflecting early experimentation in Buddhist architectural design.

Buddhist Images and Boddhisattvas:

Along with images of the Buddha, depictions of Bodhisattvas also began to appear, including Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya. In Vajrayana Buddhism, these Bodhisattva images became prominent as they symbolized various qualities and virtues, such as compassion, wisdom, and protection.

Museums Where Amaravati Sculptures Are Kept:

Sculptures and artifacts from the Amaravati stupa are preserved in several major museums. These include the Amaravati Site Museum near the original site, the Chennai Museum, the National Museum in New Delhi, and the British Museum in London, which houses several important reliefs taken during the colonial period.

Cave Tradition in Western India

Main Architectural Types of Chaitya Halls:

Early Buddhist architecture featured different types of chaitya halls:

Apsidal (U-shaped) Vault-Roof Chaitya Halls were found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, and Bhaja. These had a pillared hall with a stupa at the back.

Apsidal Vault-Roof Pillarless Halls were found at Thana-Nadsur (Maharashtra). These had no interior pillars, offering an open space.

Flat-Roofed Quadrangular Halls with a Circular Chamber at the Back were seen at Kondivite (Maharashtra). These lacked a dominating chaitya window and had a circular room at the rear.

Common Features in Chaitya Caves:

In all types of early chaitya halls, a stupa was placed at the back of the hall. The front façade typically featured a semi-circular chaitya arch, made of wood or stone, and was often open to allow natural light inside. In some sites, like Ajanta Cave 9, a stone-screen wall was added for weather protection, preserving the interior carvings and structure.

Modifications in 1st Century BCE:

Over time, the traditional apsidal (U-shaped) plan of chaitya halls evolved into a more rectangular shape, as seen in Ajanta Cave 9. This architectural change is evident at several sites, including Ajanta, Bedsa, Nashik, Karla, and Kanheri, reflecting the gradual development in rock-cut Buddhist architecture.

Karla Chaitya Hall:

The Karla Chaitya is the largest rock-cut chaitya hall in India. Its structure includes an open courtyard with two free-standing pillars, a veranda, and a stone-screen wall façade. Inside, it features a grand apsidal hall lined with pillars and a stupa at the back. The hall is richly decorated with massive and dynamic human and animal figures, showcasing advanced sculptural artistry.

Kanheri Cave No. 3:

The Kanheri Chaitya has a more advanced architectural plan than Karla, reflecting further evolution in design. Although its interior remains incomplete, it demonstrates significant progress in carving techniques and style, marking a transition toward more refined rock-cut architecture.

Shift in Style:

In later periods, flat-roofed quadrangular chaitya halls became more popular. These halls featured rectangular plans with flat ceilings, replacing the earlier vaulted-roof and apsidal designs, showing a shift in both architectural preference and construction techniques.

Vihara Caves (Monastic Residences):

Plan of Viharas:

Viharas typically followed a simple layout—Veranda → Central Hall → Cells arranged along the walls for monks to stay and meditate.

Important Vihara Caves:

• Ajanta Cave 12

• Bedsa Cave 11

• Nashik Caves 3, 10, 17

Special Features:

• Many vihara caves featured chaitya arches and vedika (railing) designs above doorways.

• The Nashik vihara facades became especially notable for their pillars with ghata (pot-shaped) bases and capitals, along with finely carved human figures, reflecting growing artistic refinement.

Ganeshleni Cave (Junnar):

There is a vihara cave where a Ganesha idol was installed later, indicating continued use and adaptation over time. A stupa was also added inside, transforming it into a chaityavihara—a unique structure that combines both a residential monastery (vihara) and a worship hall (chaitya) in one cave.

Development of Buddha Images:

By the 4th–5th century CE, Buddha images began to be added to stupas, marking a shift from symbolic to anthropomorphic representation in Buddhist art.

Important Cave Sites with such developments include:

• Ajanta

• Ellora

• Pitalkhora

• Nashik

• Bhaja

• Junnar

• Karla

• Kanheri

Cave Numbers at Major Sites:

• The Junnar cave complex is one of the largest in India, with over 200 caves spread across four hill ranges.

• The Kanheri caves in Mumbai are also significant, containing 108 caves, showcasing a rich mix of viharas, chaityas, and Buddhist sculptures, reflecting centuries of monastic activity and artistic development.

Sites Still Active in Later Periods:

Ajanta, Ellora, and Kanheri remained important Buddhist sites for a long time due to their continuous use, expansion, and artistic development. These cave complexes showcase a rich legacy of monastic life, rock-cut architecture, and sculptural excellence, spanning several centuries and evolving religious styles.

Ajanta

Ajanta Caves: India’s Ancient Art Treasure

The Ajanta Caves are one of the most famous ancient cave sites in India. Located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, this site has 29 caves, carved and painted between 2nd century BCE and 6th century CE.

Types of Caves

Ajanta has two main types of caves: Chaitya Caves (prayer halls) and Vihara Caves (monasteries). Chaitya Caves like Nos. 10 and 9 belong to the early period (2nd–1st century BCE), while Nos. 19 and 26 are from the later period (5th century CE). These are apsidal halls with vaulted roofs, richly carved with images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Vihara Caves have a pillared veranda, central hall, and cells for monks, with a large Buddha image in a shrine at the back. Some, like Caves 5, 14, 23, 24, 28, and 29, remain unfinished.

Who Sponsored These Caves?

Many Ajanta caves were built with the support of royal patrons and donors. Varahadeva, minister of Vakataka king Harishena, sponsored Cave 16. Upendragupta, a local ruler, funded Caves 17 to 20. Buddhabhadra supported Cave 26, while Mathuradasa contributed to the construction of Cave 4.

The Ajanta Paintings

Ajanta is famous for its wall paintings. These are the only surviving examples of early Indian paintings from both 1st century BCE and 5th century CE.

Early Paintings (Caves 9 & 10):

Early Ajanta paintings used limited colors, simple lines, and broad figures. Events were depicted in horizontal rows, often illustrating Jataka tales, which tell stories from the Buddha’s past lives. A notable example is the Chaddanta Jataka, where palace and forest scenes are clearly separated within the composition.

Later Paintings (Caves 1, 2, 16, 17):

In the later phase of Ajanta paintings, more colors like brown, green, and yellow ochre were used. The style became naturalistic, with graceful lines and realistic figures. Themes included the life of Buddha, Jataka tales, and Avadanas. Famous artworks include Padmapani and Vajrapani in Cave 1, and stories like Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka, and Vidhurpandita Jataka. Each cave reflects different artistic styles, suggesting the involvement of various artist guilds. For example, Chaddanta Jataka is painted in two very different styles in Caves 10 and 17.

Painting Techniques and Features

Ajanta painters used thick brown outlines filled with natural colors, creating figures with a sense of volume and depth. The poses show rhythmic movement rather than stiffness, and backgrounds are simple, sometimes featuring symbolic architecture. The half-closed eyes of figures give a meditative expression. These paintings are beautifully integrated with the cave’s architecture and sculptures, forming a harmonious visual experience.

Final Thoughts

Ajanta Caves represent one of the greatest achievements of ancient Indian art. The combination of rock-cut architecture, sculpture, and painting creates a powerful spiritual and artistic experience. Though many caves are weathered, Ajanta remains a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a symbol of India’s rich Buddhist heritage.

Ellora

India is home to some of the most breathtaking rock-cut caves, and Ellora and Bagh are two such wonders. These sites showcase the brilliance of ancient Indian art, sculpture, and religious harmony.

Ellora Caves – A Meeting Point of Religions

• Location: Near Aurangabad, Maharashtra (about 100 km from Ajanta)

• Total Caves: 34

• Time Period: 5th to 11th century CE

• Religions Represented: Buddhism, Hinduism (Brahmanical), and Jainism

Buddhist Caves (Caves 1–12):

The Buddhist caves at Ellora are large and multi-storeyed, with some being single, double, or even triple-storeyed. They house Vajrayana deities like Tara, Avalokiteshwara, Akshobhya, Amitabha, and others. The pillars are thick and grand, adding to their impressive architecture. Cave 12, a triple-storeyed vihara, is especially notable for containing images of the Five Dhyani Buddhas, Vajrasattva, Vajraraja, and Manushi Buddhas. Buddha statues in shrines are flanked by Padmapani and Vajrapani. Although the caves were once painted, most of the paintings have not survived.

Brahmanical Caves (Caves 13–28):

Most Hindu caves at Ellora are dedicated to Shaivism, though some depict Vaishnavite themes as well. Key scenes include Ravana shaking Mount Kailash, Kalyanasundara (Shiva’s wedding), Andhakasuravadha, and the Dashavatara of Vishnu. Cave 14 is the only double-storeyed Hindu cave. The sculptures are monumental, with heavy bodies, dynamic poses, and deep carvings. Artists from Vidarbha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu contributed to a rich and diverse sculptural style.

Jain Caves (Caves 30–34):

The Jain caves at Ellora, carved in the 9th century CE, are highly ornate with detailed decorations and elaborate carvings. They reflect clear influences from earlier Buddhist and Hindu styles, showcasing refined artistry and intricate design.

Special Highlight – Kailash Temple (Cave 16):

The Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) at Ellora is a rock-cut marvel, carved entirely from a single monolithic rock. It is designed to resemble Mount Kailash, the mythical abode of Lord Shiva, and is considered one of the greatest achievements of ancient Indian architecture for its scale, precision, and artistic brilliance.

Bagh Caves – The Painted Monasteries of Central India

The Bagh Caves, located 97 km from Dhar District, Madhya Pradesh, date mostly to the Satavahana period (around 2nd century CE). Originally nine caves were carved into a sandstone cliff beside a seasonal stream, but only five survive today. All are man-made viharas with a quadrangular layout, and each has a small chamber at the back serving as a chaitya (prayer hall).

Paintings in Bagh Caves:

The most famous cave at Bagh is Cave 4, known as Rang Mahal or “Palace of Colours,” with traces of ancient murals still visible on its walls and ceilings. Painting remnants are also found in Caves 2, 3, 5, and 7. The paintings were created on mud-plastered walls, then lime-coated for a smooth finish. They used natural colors, showcased elegant human forms, and depicted rich storytelling themes.

In 1982, many of these paintings were carefully removed to preserve them and are now kept in the Archaeological Museum of Gwalior.

Elephanta Caves and Other Sites

The Elephanta Caves near Mumbai, dedicated to Shaivism, are contemporary with Ellora and feature sculptures with slender forms and dramatic light-dark contrasts. Rock-cut cave traditions continued in the Deccan, supported by the Chalukyas in Badami and Aihole (Karnataka), the Pallavas in Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu), and in Vijayawada (Andhra Pradesh). After the sixth century, art developed mainly under royal patronage rather than public support. Alongside stone sculptures, terracotta figurines were widespread across India, serving as toys, religious icons, or healing objects, reflecting both mainstream and local traditions.

Cave Tradition in Eastern India

Buddhist caves in eastern India, mainly in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, reflect a rich rock-cut tradition. Guntapalle in Eluru district is unique for combining caves, stupas, and monasteries at one site. Its circular chaitya cave with a stupa and decorated viharas dates to the 2nd century BCE. Other sites like Rampaerrampallam and Anakapalli feature rock-cut stupas, with Anakapalli having the largest in India (4th–5th century CE). In Odisha, the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar were built for Jain monks under King Kharavela. These caves, some shaped like animals, include pillared verandas and narrative carvings, with later additions in the 8th–9th centuries CE.