Attitude and Social 1 Cognition Cognition Notes in English Class 12 Psychology Chapter-6 Book-1

Introduction

Social psychology is that branch of psychology which investigates how the behaviour of individuals is affected by others and the social environment. All of us form attitudes, or ways of thinking about specific topics and people. Many of these social behaviours seem to be simple. Yet, explaining the processes that lie behind these behaviours is a complex matter. This chapter will describe the basic ideas related to attitudes, as explained by social psychologists.

EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Social behaviour is an essential part of human life and goes beyond simply being around others. Social psychology, as you studied in Class XI, explores how people behave in the presence—real, imagined, or implied—of others. It examines how individuals form attitudes, beliefs, and behavioural tendencies due to social influences. To fully understand how society affects individuals, both social thinking (social cognition) and social behaviour must be studied. Social psychologists emphasize that to truly understand human behaviour, we must move beyond common sense and rely on scientific explanations of how people interpret and react to the actions of others.

NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

What is an Attitude?

An attitude is a mental state or viewpoint about a specific topic, known as the attitude object, and it includes three components: a thought or belief (cognitive aspect), a feeling or emotion (affective aspect), and a tendency to act in a certain way (behavioural or conative aspect).

The A-B-C components of attitude refer to three interconnected parts:

• Affective – how we feel (e.g., anger at littering),

• Behavioural – how we are likely to act (e.g., avoid plastic use), and

• Cognitive – what we think or believe (e.g., pollution is harmful).

Example: If you care about the environment, you believe pollution is harmful (cognitive), feel angry when people litter (affective), and avoid using plastic (behavioural).

How is Attitude Different from Opinion, Belief & Value?

Purpose of Attitudes

Attitudes help us respond easily in new situations by acting as a mental blueprint for behavior. For example, if you have a friendly attitude towards foreigners, you will naturally behave warmly and openly when you meet one, without needing to think too much.

Key Features of Attitudes

Attitudes have four important properties:

Valence – Shows whether an attitude is positive, negative, or neutral.

Example: Rating nuclear research as 5 = very positive; 1 = very negative; 3 = neutral.

Extremeness – Indicates how strong the attitude is.

Rating of 1 or 5 = extreme; 2 or 4 = less extreme; 3 = least extreme.

Simplicity or Complexity (Multiplexity) –

A simple attitude involves one issue (e.g. liking one person), while a complex attitude includes many aspects (e.g. attitude toward health includes diet, exercise, mental well-being, etc.).

Centrality – Reflects how important the attitude is in your belief system.

Example: If "world peace" is central to you, your views on war, politics, and defense spending will align with that.

Final Summary

Attitudes are made up of thoughts, feelings, and action tendencies toward a topic. They help us make decisions and behave appropriately in social situations. Although internal and invisible, attitudes strongly influence our actions.

Related terms:

• Beliefs – Only cognitive (thought-based)

• Values – Moral or ethical beliefs

• Opinions – General personal views or judgments

ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE

Attitude Formation

Attitudes are mostly learned through our own experiences and interactions with others. Although some studies suggest that genetic factors may have a minor influence, they play only an indirect role. Psychologists believe that attitudes develop like other thoughts and ideas, as part of our growing cognitive system. That’s why learning conditions and social interactions are considered the key sources for the formation of attitudes.

Process of Attitude Formation

How Are Attitudes Learned?

People develop different attitudes due to different learning processes and situations.

1. Learning Attitudes by Association

This is an example of classical conditioning, where we develop a liking for something because it is associated with a positive person or experience. For instance, a student may start liking Maths simply because the teacher is kind and inspiring, even if they didn’t enjoy the subject before.

2. Learning by Reward or Punishment

This reflects operant conditioning, where positive reinforcement (like praise or rewards) leads to the development of a positive attitude, while punishment or negative outcomes may create a negative attitude. For example, a girl who wins “Miss Good Health” for doing yoga is likely to form a positive attitude toward health and fitness.

3. Learning by Observing Others (Modelling)

This is an example of observational learning or social learning, where we learn by watching others and seeing the consequences of their actions. For instance, if a child observes their parents respecting elders, they are likely to learn and adopt the same respectful behavior.

4. Learning Through Cultural or Group Norms

This reflects the influence of social conformity, where our attitudes and behaviors are shaped by social norms and group expectations. For example, offering sweets in temples becomes viewed as a positive and respectful act because it is socially accepted and encouraged within the community.

5. Learning Through Exposure to Information

This is an example of informational influence, where attitudes are formed through reading, watching, or listening to information. For instance, reading a biography of a hardworking person can inspire a positive attitude toward hard work, as the information leaves a meaningful impact on the reader.

Factors That Influence Attitude Formation

1. Family and School Environment

Early attitudes are primarily formed through influences from parents and school, where children learn by association (linking experiences with feelings), through rewards and punishments (reinforcing behaviors), and by modelling (imitating adults and teachers). These early interactions lay the foundation for lifelong beliefs and behaviors.

2. Reference Groups

These are called reference groups—groups we admire or aspire to join, which strongly influence our attitudes, thinking, and behavior, especially during adolescence. For example, a teenager may adopt the opinions or values of a political or religious group they look up to, shaping their beliefs and actions.

3. Personal Experiences

Personal experiences, especially strong or life-changing ones, can deeply reshape attitudes. For example, a soldier who survives war may return with a transformed, positive outlook and a desire to uplift his village, showing how powerful experiences can lead to lasting attitude change.

4. Media Influence

Mass media—like TV, internet, and books—plays a powerful role in shaping attitudes. It influences the cognitive (what we know), affective (how we feel), and behavioral (how we act) components of attitude. Media can promote positive social messages or lead to harmful consumerism, depending on the content and how it's received.

Final Summary:

Attitudes are shaped by many influences, especially family, culture, experiences, and media.

Attitude Change

Attitudes can change or be modified through various influences, especially during their formation stage. Attitudes that are still developing, like opinions, are easier to change than those that are firmly established and linked to a person’s core values. Understanding how and why attitudes change is important for leaders, politicians, advertisers, and others who want to influence public opinion. Knowing the conditions that promote attitude change helps in planning effective strategies to bring about such changes.

Process of Attitude Change

Balance Theory – P-O-X Model (Fritz Heider)

According to Balance Theory, attitude change occurs when there's an imbalance in the relationship between P (the person), O (another person), and X (the topic or object, like dowry). Imbalance—such as when two attitudes are positive and one is negative—causes discomfort, prompting people to change one of the attitudes to restore balance. Balance exists when all three attitudes are positive, or when two are negative and one is positive. For example, if P likes dowry (+), O dislikes dowry (–), and O likes P (+), the relationship is imbalanced. To fix it, either P, O, or the attitude toward dowry must change.

Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger)

According to the theory of Cognitive Dissonance, when a person holds two conflicting thoughts or beliefs, it creates mental discomfort. To reduce this dissonance, they often change one of the beliefs or behaviors. For example:

• Cognition 1: “Pan masala causes cancer”

• Cognition 2: “I eat pan masala”

This mismatch creates discomfort, which may lead the person to stop eating pan masala to restore cognitive consistency—the idea that all parts of our thinking should logically align. This is how attitude or behavior changes to stay mentally balanced.

Two-Step Concept (S.M. Mohsin – Indian Psychologist)

Attitude change happens in two steps:

Attitude change through identification and imitation happens in two steps:

Step 1: Identification – The target person likes, admires, or respects the source (e.g., a celebrity or role model) and wants to be like them.

Step 2: Imitation – When the source changes their behavior or attitude, the target observes and copies this change.

Example: Preeti loves a soft drink because her favourite sportsperson promotes it. Later, the sportsperson switches to a health drink, so Preeti also changes her attitude and stops drinking the soft drink. This shows how attitudes can change through admiration and imitation.

Factors that Influence Attitude Change 

Attitude change depends on several important factors. First, the nature of the existing attitude plays a big role. Attitudes that are positive, less extreme, simple, and not central (less important) are easier to change. In contrast, negative, extreme, complex, and central (very important) attitudes are harder to change. Also, the direction of change matters. If the attitude becomes stronger in the same direction (called congruent change), it is easier. But if it changes in the opposite direction (called incongruent change), it is harder. For example, reading about successful women may make a person’s positive attitude towards women's empowerment even more positive (congruent). But for some, it may create fear that women will neglect families, making their attitude less positive or even negative (incongruent). Fear-based messages may sometimes work, but too much fear can backfire and make people ignore the message.

The second factor is the characteristics of the source (the person giving the message). If the source is credible (like an expert), people are more likely to accept the message. For example, a computer engineer is more convincing to adults buying a laptop than a child. Also, attractive or popular figures (like celebrities) can influence people even if they are not experts, especially in advertising.

The third factor is the nature of the message itself. The message should provide the right amount of information—not too much or too little. It can use rational appeal (logic and facts) or emotional appeal (feelings and values), depending on what works better. For example, promoting pressure cookers can be done by saying it saves gas (rational) or that it keeps food nutritious for the family (emotional). The method of spreading the message also matters. Face-to-face communication works better than letters or media. Talking directly, like doctors promoting ORS in villages, is more effective than radio ads.

Finally, characteristics of the target person (the one whose attitude is to be changed) also matter. People who are open-minded, less prejudiced, or have low self-esteem are more likely to change their attitudes. Those with high intelligence may resist change, but sometimes they change more willingly if the message is logical and well-supported.

Attitude-Behaviour Relationship

While we usually expect behaviour to reflect attitudes, this is not always the case. Sometimes, people behave contrary to their attitudes due to external pressure, lack of awareness, or social evaluation. Consistency between attitude and behaviour is more likely when the attitude is strong, known to the person, and free from social pressure. For example, LaPiere’s study showed that although many hotel managers claimed they wouldn’t serve Chinese guests (negative attitude), they actually did (positive behaviour). Similarly, Festinger and Carlsmith’s experiment showed that behaviour can shape attitudes—students who lied for a small reward ended up believing the lie, adjusting their attitude to match their actions.

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

Prejudices are negative attitudes toward specific groups, often based on stereotypes—oversimplified beliefs that all group members share certain traits. These attitudes include a cognitive component (stereotypes), an emotional component (dislike or hatred), and a behavioural component (discrimination). Prejudice can lead to discrimination, though either can exist independently. Sources of prejudice include learning from family, media, and culture; strong ingroup identity that creates bias against outgroups; scapegoating weaker groups for problems; belief in a “kernel of truth” behind stereotypes; and self-fulfilling prophecies where targets behave in ways that confirm the bias. Prejudice is hard to change, even when laws prohibit discrimination.

STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE

To effectively reduce prejudice, it's important to address its root causes. Strategies include: (a) limiting opportunities to learn prejudices, (b) changing existing biased attitudes, (c) reducing strong ingroup identity, and (d) preventing victims from adopting self-fulfilling negative roles. These can be achieved through education and spreading correct information to counter stereotypes and biases, and by increasing intergroup contact—especially when groups interact in cooperative, equal-status settings that encourage communication and mutual understanding. Another method is to focus on individual identity over group identity, helping people evaluate others as unique individuals rather than based on group membership.