The Modern Indian Art Notes in English Class 12 Fine Art Chapter-7 Book-1

Introduction to Modernism in India

British Colonial View on Indian Art

The British considered Fine Arts to be inherently European and believed that Indians lacked the sensibility for such refined art. To promote their artistic ideals, they established Art Schools in major cities like Lahore, Calcutta (Kolkata), Bombay (Mumbai), and Madras (Chennai).

Focus of British Art Schools

The British promoted traditional Indian crafts modified to suit European tastes, along with Victorian naturalism and academic realism. In response, 🇮🇳 a wave of Nationalist Art emerged, aiming to reclaim and redefine Indian artistic identity.

Bengal School of Art

The Nationalist Art movement was founded by Abanindranath Tagore and E.B. Havell. It rejected European realism and drew inspiration from traditional Indian sources like Mughal and Pahari miniatures and the Ajanta frescoes.

Kala Bhavana (1919)

Founded by Rabindranath Tagore at Visva-Bharati University in Shantiniketan, it was India’s first nationalist art school. While continuing the Bengal School’s vision, it also encouraged exploring new and diverse creative paths.

Modern European Influences

Artists began reading European art magazines and were influenced by movements like Cubism, Expressionism, and Abstraction. They believed that art should not merely imitate reality but should create its own unique form and language.

Gaganendranath Tagore

They used the Cubist language through vertical, horizontal, and diagonal lines to create mystical architectural interiors. This approach was distinct from Picasso’s Cubism, which focused more on breaking forms into geometric facets.

Rabindranath Tagore

He took up visual art later in life, creating artworks from doodles and crossed-out words. Using a limited color palette of black, red, yellow ochre, and browns, he developed a unique and abstract visual language.

Nandalal Bose and His Students

Nandalal Bose joined Kala Bhavana in 1921–22 and was a student of Abanindranath Tagore. He encouraged freedom and experimentation in art, nurturing a new generation of modern Indian artists.

Benode Behari Mukherjee

Nandalal Bose was known for his sketches of local life, flora, and fauna. His famous mural Medieval Saints depicted figures like Tulsidas and Kabir. He preferred spiritual and humanistic themes rather than grand epic narratives.

Ramkinker Baij

He celebrated nature and tribal life, especially the Santhal community. His famous sculpture Santhal Family is life-size and made using cement, pebbles, and metal. His style was bold and experimental, standing in contrast to D.P. Roy Choudhury’s realistic approach seen in works like The Triumph of Labour.

Jamini Roy

Trained at the Government Art School in Calcutta, he rejected academic realism and drew inspiration from Bengal folk art as well as modern European masters like Picasso and Paul Klee. His style featured flat colours, bold outlines, and simplified forms. He used vegetable and mineral colours, and his artworks were often reproduced by his family, following village traditions. Uniquely, he signed his works, making them distinctly personal.

Amrita Sher-Gil (1913–1941)

He was half Hungarian and half Indian, and trained in Paris where he learned Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. After returning to India, he fused Indian miniature and mural art with European modernist styles. Though he died young, his work left a lasting impact on the evolution of modern Indian art.

Modern Ideologies and Political Art in India

Global Events and Indian Response

After Amrita Sher-Gil’s death, India was still under British rule and soon faced the devastating effects of World War II (1939–1945). The Bengal Famine of 1943 caused massive hunger, death, and migration, leading to a severe humanitarian crisis. This tragedy deeply moved artists and made them reflect on their social responsibilities through their art.

The Calcutta Group (Formed in 1943)

The Calcutta Group was founded by key modernist artists including sculptor Prodosh Das Gupta, along with Nirode Mazumdar, Paritosh Sen, Gopal Ghose, and Rathin Moitra. They collectively pioneered modern art in post-independence India.

Philosophy and Goals

The Calcutta Group aimed to create universal and modern art. They rejected the Bengal School of Art for being too sentimental and focused on the past. Instead, they emphasized contemporary issues, using simplified forms, minimal detail, and prioritizing material, texture, colour, and form over storytelling.

Example from South India

P. V. Janakiram, known for his sculpture of Ganesh, was a modern sculptor who worked creatively with metal sheets, giving traditional forms a contemporary twist.

Rise of Socialist and Marxist Influence

Many artists, influenced by Marxism, began addressing themes of class differences and social inequality. This led to the rise of social realism in art, where artists used their work to raise awareness and provoke thought about pressing social issues.

Political Artists and Printmaking

Chittoprasad and Somnath Hore

Artists used printmaking techniques like etchings, linocuts, and lithographs as tools for mass awareness. By producing multiple copies, they aimed to reach a wider audience and spread social and political messages effectively.

Chittoprasad’s Contribution

He documented the Bengal Famine through powerful sketches after being sent by the Communist Party of India to the affected villages. His works were compiled into pamphlets titled Hungry Bengal, which revealed the harsh realities of rural suffering and angered the British authorities.

Key Takeaways

The Bengal Famine and World War II marked a turning point in Indian art, shifting it from romanticism to realism and activism. The Calcutta Group led the movement toward modern Indian art that addressed contemporary social issues. Printmaking emerged as a powerful tool for political and social expression, with artists like Chittoprasad and Somnath Hore playing key roles in creating socially engaged and impactful art.

The Progressive Artists’ Group of Bombay and the Multifaceted Indian Art

After India’s Independence, the desire for artistic freedom grew among young artists. In 1946, a group called The Progressives was formed in Bombay, led by Francis Newton Souza along with M. F. Husain, K. H. Ara, S. H. Raza, S. A. Bakre, and H. A. Gade. Souza challenged traditional ideas of beauty and morality through bold, experimental works, often painting exaggerated female nudes. In contrast, M. F. Husain blended modern Western styles like expressionism with Indian themes, using bright colours, mythological figures, folk art, and miniature styles. His ability to merge modern technique with Indian culture made him a key figure in international modern Indian art. His painting of Mother Teresa is one example of how he made modern art meaningful to both Indian and global audiences.

Abstraction – A New Trend

Figurative vs. Abstract Art

M. F. Husain remained a figurative artist, using modern forms to depict Indian themes and culture. In contrast, S. H. Raza gradually moved towards abstraction, painting vibrant and subtle landscapes. He drew deep inspiration from Indian symbols like mandalas, yantras, and the bindu, representing cosmic unity in Indian philosophy.

Growth of Abstraction in Indian Art

Other key artists included V. S. Gaitonde, known for pure abstraction. Artists like K. K. Hebbar, S. Chavda, Akbar Padamsee, Tyeb Mehta, and Krishen Khanna explored both figurative and abstract styles. Sculptor Piloo Pochkhanawala used innovative materials and abstract forms, while printmaker Krishna Reddy developed an abstract and experimental style in printmaking.

K. C. S. Paniker and Cholamandalam

A pioneer of abstraction in South India, he founded the Cholamandalam Artists' Village near Madras. By incorporating Tamil and Sanskrit scripts, rural crafts, and kolam designs, he demonstrated that abstraction had deep Indian roots. In the late 1970s, a growing tension emerged between Western modern styles like Cubism and Expressionism and indigenous Indian art, sparking a strong need to Indianise abstraction and assert cultural identity.

Neo-Tantric Art Movement (1960s–70s)

This style was inspired by Indian Tantric philosophy and featured geometrical patterns, yantras, and cosmic symbols. It gained popularity in the West during the Hippie movement for its spiritual and mystical appeal.

Key Artists:

Biren De used bold colours and striking patterns to express spiritual themes. G. R. Santosh depicted the cosmic union of male (Purusha) and female (Prakriti) energies in his works. K. C. S. Paniker blended regional scripts and symbolic diagrams, crafting a modern style deeply rooted in Indian tradition.

Eclecticism in Modern Indian Art

Many artists embraced eclecticism, borrowing from both Indian and global sources to shape their unique styles. Notable eclectic modernists include Ram Kumar, Satish Gujral, A. Ramachandran, and Meera Mukherjee, each blending diverse influences in innovative ways.

Group 1890 (Formed in 1963)

Led by J. Swaminathan, this movement promoted artistic freedom and individuality. He wrote a manifesto that rejected fixed ideologies and emphasized freedom of expression. The focus shifted to material, texture, and rough surfaces, forming a new and distinct visual language in modern Indian art.

Members Included:

Key artists associated with this modernist wave included Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Jyoti Bhatt, Ambadas, and Jeram Patel. Sculptors Raghav Kaneria and Himmat Shah also played a vital role, contributing with experimental forms and materials. Together, they expanded the boundaries of Indian modern art.

Impact:

Although Group 1890 was short-lived, it left a lasting impact on future generations of artists, particularly those at the Cholamandalam School, inspiring them to pursue innovation and freedom in modern Indian art.

Key Takeaways

Indian modern art evolved by blending abstraction, Tantric symbolism, and innovative use of materials. Artists sought to balance Western modernism with Indian spiritual and cultural traditions. Groups like the Progressive Artists' Group and Group 1890 challenged artistic norms, pushing boundaries of practice and identity. Neo-Tantric and eclectic styles played a key role in shaping a unique Indian modernist identity.

Tracing the Modern Indian Art

Modernism and Its Western Origins

In Europe, modern art emerged as a response against academic realism promoted by official art academies. Artists like Edouard Manet, Paul Cézanne, and Claude Monet rejected traditional methods, choosing instead to explore new styles and ideas. They often gathered in cafés, restaurants, and salons to debate the evolving role of art in a rapidly modernizing world shaped by the Industrial Revolution and urbanization.

🇮🇳 In colonial India, modernism took a different path. It evolved under British rule, where becoming “modern” was not only about adopting new styles but also about expressing a new spirit and attitude. Indian modern art became closely linked with nationalism and the quest for a distinct cultural identity.

Early Indian Modernists (1930s)

Gaganendranath Tagore, Amrita Sher-Gil, and Jamini Roy are considered early modernists in Indian art. While embracing modernist ideas, their work remained deeply rooted in Indian culture, tradition, and identity.

Nationalism and Cultural Identity

After the 1857 Revolt, cultural nationalism rose alongside political nationalism. Thinkers like Ananda Coomaraswamy advocated for Swadeshi in art, emphasizing that Indian art should be indigenous rather than imitating the West. Indian modern art thus evolved through a careful blend of Western ideas and traditional Indian aesthetics.

Role of the Bengal School and Shantiniketan

The Bengal School of Art was founded in the late 19th century by Abanindranath Tagore in Calcutta. It promoted Indian artistic styles inspired by Ajanta frescoes, as well as Mughal, Rajasthani, and Pahari miniatures, aiming to revive traditional Indian art forms.

Kala Bhavana, Shantiniketan

Founded by Rabindranath Tagore, Shantiniketan became a hub of cultural nationalism and artistic freedom. Key artists like Nandalal Bose and Asit Kumar Haldar were trained in traditional Indian art but approached it with a modern, progressive mindset.

Pioneers of Indian Modern Attitude in Art

Gaganendranath Tagore explored abstraction with a strong Cubist influence, while Rabindranath Tagore developed a free and expressive visual language. Jamini Roy drew inspiration from folk art and used natural colours. Amrita Sher-Gil blended European techniques with Indian themes. Ramkinker Baij, a pioneering sculptor, was inspired by Santhal life and used modern materials. Benode Behari Mukherjee created murals reflecting Indian historical and spiritual themes, contributing richly to Indian modern art.

Key Points to Remember

Indian modern art was not a mere imitation of Western styles. It emerged through a selective and creative process shaped by colonial experiences, nationalist movements, and Indian traditional art. Swadeshi ideas, folk roots, and modern themes coexisted within this movement. As a result, Indian modern art developed its own distinct identity, blending global influences with deeply rooted local traditions.

The New Figurative Art and Modern Art from 1980s 

Historical Context

The 1971 Indo-Pakistan War and the creation of Bangladesh sparked deep social and political concerns among Indian artists. In response, many shifted towards using recognisable figures and narratives in their art to connect more effectively with the general public and reflect the turbulent times.

Figurative Art and Storytelling

Baroda Artists – K. G. Subramanyan, Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakhar

These artists used narratives, myths, daily life, and fantasy, blending fact with fiction and mixing autobiography with imagination.

West Bengal Artists – Jogen Chowdhury, Bikash Bhattacharjee, Ganesh Pyne

They focused on social issues, urban alienation, and deep individual emotions, often using symbolic and introspective visual language.

Folk and Popular Influences

Artists revisited folk art, miniatures, calendar art, and street visuals to connect with the people.

Figures in Printmaking

Artists like Jyoti Bhatt (Devi), Laxma Goud (Man, Woman, Tree), and Anupam Sud (Of Walls) used human and animal figures to highlight themes of gender conflict and social inequality. Their works combined symbolism with realism to raise awareness about everyday struggles and power dynamics in society.

Urban Themes and the Oppressed

Artists Addressing Urban Suffering like Arpita Singh, Nalini Malani, and Sudhir Patwardhan focused on the struggles of common people in big cities. Their art portrayed the lives of women, workers, the poor, and the marginalised, highlighting themes of hardship, resilience, and social injustice in urban settings.

Baroda Art School (Late 1950s Onwards)

New Vision (1980s):

During the 1980s, artists became more conscious of their role as democratic citizens. Their art began to explore immediate surroundings, draw from historical styles and local traditions, and blend elements of fantasy with personal autobiography, creating deeply reflective and socially aware works.

Gulam Mohammed Sheikh

He painted scenes of Baroda bazaars merged with Italian medieval towns, creating a unique blend of cultures. His work drew inspiration from both European and Indian art history, reflecting a deep engagement with diverse artistic traditions.

K. G. Subramanyan

He was a student of Benode Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij at Shantiniketan. He promoted mural art for public spaces, using techniques like sand casting learned from Rajasthani craftsmen. He believed that art should be accessible to all, not confined to galleries.

Major Art Exhibition: 'Place for People' (1981)

Featured Artists of modern Indian art include:

• Bhupen Khakhar – known for his narrative, autobiographical works.

• Gulam Mohammed Sheikh – blended myths, memory, and fantasy.

• Vivan Sundaram – experimented with installations and political themes.

• Nalini Malani – focused on feminist and social justice issues.

• Sudhir Patwardhan – depicted urban life and working-class struggles.

• Jogen Chowdhury – explored human emotions through expressive line and form.

Role of Critic:

Geeta Kapur, a renowned art critic, played a key role in interpreting and explaining the vision of modern Indian artists. For the first time, a critic’s perspective became central in shaping public understanding and appreciation of modern art in India.

Bold Themes in Bhupen Khakhar’s Work

He painted everyday people like barbers and watch repairers, while also exploring queer identity and middle-class morality. By doing so, he turned personal themes into public and political statements, challenging societal norms through his art.

Inspiration from Popular Culture

Baroda narrative painters embraced popular visual culture, drawing inspiration from truck art, shop signboards, and auto-rickshaw decorations. This vibrant, street-inspired style later influenced younger artists in Mumbai, who continued exploring everyday urban aesthetics in their work.

Techniques:

These artists used photographic images and played with double meanings, blending watercolour techniques with photo-realism. This approach led to the creation of a fresh, distinctive style that moved beyond traditional modernism, offering new ways to interpret contemporary life.

Key Takeaways

Post-1970s, Indian art became increasingly socially aware, narrative-driven, and visually accessible. Artists began combining popular art forms, folk traditions, personal stories, and urban issues to connect with a wider audience. Landmark exhibitions like ‘Place for People’ (1981), and influential artists such as Bhupen Khakhar, Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, and K. G. Subramanyan, played a key role in redefining the landscape of modern Indian art.

New Media Art: from 1990s

With the liberalisation of India’s economy in the 1990s, the effects of globalisation first appeared in big cities. While India advanced in technology, it also faced social and political unrest. Artists responded to these changes by exploring new mediums. Traditional forms like painting and sculpture lost focus, while video, photography, and especially installation art became popular. Installation art allowed artists to combine painting, sculpture, video, and photography in one immersive space. Artists like Nalini Malani (Mumbai) and Vivan Sundaram (Delhi) led this trend with powerful, thought-provoking works.

Photorealism also emerged—artists like Atul Dodiya, T. V. Santosh, and Shibu Natesan used it to reflect on issues like communal violence and India’s changing urban look. Photography was used by artists like Sheba Chachi, Ravi Agarwal, and Atul Bhalla to highlight marginalised communities and ecological concerns.

By the 2000s, art galleries had opened across major Indian cities, and artists began using digital tools and social media to share and develop their work. As a student of visual arts, it is important to explore local artists, visit galleries, and understand how art reflects and contributes to society.

Project

Visit the National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA) or any other museum in your city or NGMA’s website and work on a timeline to see different trends in modern Indian art after 1947 in terms of internationalism and indigenous. Students should also make a note of where the timeline ends. Teachers should discuss the role of curators and art critics in conveying the meaning of artworks to the public. The type of material used by each artist may also be noted.

The Lives of Medieval Saints

The Lives of Medieval Saints is a 23-metre-long mural created by Benode Behari Mukherjee at Hindi Bhavana, Shantiniketan in 1946–47, using the fresco buono technique. Painted around the time of India’s Independence, it celebrates the tolerant spirit of Bhakti saints like Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, and Ramanuja. Despite his poor eyesight, Mukherjee painted directly on the walls with minimal lines and flowing forms, creating a tapestry-like effect. The mural reflects India’s syncretic traditions and marks one of the first examples of modern mural art as public expression in India.

Mother Teresa

This 1980s painting by M. F. Husain depicts Mother Teresa in his unique modern style. The faceless Mother appears multiple times, holding babies, with special focus on her hands, symbolizing care and compassion. At the center, a grown man lies across her lap, reminding us of Michelangelo’s Pieta, reflecting Husain’s knowledge of European art. The use of flat shapes and paper-cutout-like forms gives the work a modern, collage-like feel. Rather than showing a realistic scene, Husain offers symbolic hints, leaving viewers to interpret the story. A kneeling woman on one side suggests that the theme of healing and compassion is set in India.

Haldi Grinder

Amrita Sher-Gil's painting Haldi Grinder (1940) reflects her turn toward rural Indian life for inspiration. It shows women engaged in grinding turmeric, a traditional activity, painted in a distinctly Indian style. Trained in European modern art, Sher-Gil combined this with Indian miniature traditions, especially Basohli painting, using bright, saturated colours and flat shapes without outlines. Instead of creating depth, she placed colour patches side by side to form figures and patterns, creating a semi-abstract, modern composition. This painting highlights her effort to blend modernism with Indian identity.

Fairy Tales from Purvapalli

This 1986 painting by K. G. Subramanyan, made with water and oil colours on acrylic sheet, reflects his deep knowledge of Indian and global art traditions. Titled after his home in Purvapalli, Shantiniketan, the work shows an imaginary world where humans, birds, and animals coexist, and trees grow feathers instead of leaves. The painting uses quick, sketchy brush strokes in an earthy colour palette of ochres, greens, and browns. The flat, layered composition and stylized figures resemble Kalighat folk art and miniature painting traditions, blending folk elements with a modern artistic style.

Whirlpool

This 1963 print by Krishna Reddy, a renowned Indian printmaker, showcases a rich blend of blue shades forming a fluid, web-like design. It was created using a technique called viscosity printing, which Reddy developed along with Stanley William Hayter at the famous Atelier 17 studio. In this method, different colours mixed with varying amounts of linseed oil are applied to a single metal plate, so they don't mix. The print, inspired by water currents, beautifully reflects the interplay of water and oil, both in theme and technique. This celebrated work is part of the Metropolitan Museum of Art collection in New York.

Children

This 1958 monochromatic etching with aquatint by Somnath Hore reflects the deep impact of the 1943 Bengal Famine on his artistic vision. The print shows five malnourished children, with skeletal bodies, enlarged spleens, and sunken faces, standing closely together without any background or setting. Their thin limbs and hollow eyes express silent suffering. Hore used sharp, linear strokes to etch each rib and bone, creating a sense of wounded vulnerability. Without adding details like surroundings or perspective, he focuses solely on the human condition, using a reductionist style to highlight pain and neglect. This powerful image reflects the plight of society’s most vulnerable, a theme also seen in his other works like Peasants’ Meeting, Wounded Animal, and Mother with Child.

Devi

This 1970 etching on paper by Jyoti Bhatt reflects his unique style, influenced by folk traditions and modern sensibilities. A student of painting, printmaking, and photography, and mentored by K. G. Subramanyan, Bhatt created a personal art language that bridges tradition and modernity. In this print, a central image of Devi is surrounded by folk motifs, patterns, and linear forms, blending past spiritual symbols with contemporary expression. The artwork reflects Tantric philosophy, symbolizing the power of Shakti and the balance between the dynamic and static forces of reality. His other works include Kalpvruksha, Sita’s Parrot, and Still Life with Two Lamps, all exploring similar themes of cultural memory and symbolism.

Of Walls

This 1982 etching by Anupam Sud, made using a zinc plate, reflects her deep engagement with social realities in India, especially the lives of the marginalised. Trained at the Slade School of Fine Art in London, she returned to India and focused on capturing everyday struggles through her art. In this print, a seated woman with a hollow, faceless head evokes a sense of loneliness and sorrow. She sits before a crumbling wall, while in the foreground, the lower half of a sleeping poor man is partially visible. The contrast between the figures adds to the emotional depth, highlighting urban hardship and silent suffering through subtle yet powerful imagery.

Rural South Indian Man–Woman

This 2017 etching print by Laxma Goud showcases his mastery in line-based, coloured printmaking, blending realism with stylization. Trained in mural painting and printmaking at M.S. University, Baroda, and influenced by K. G. Subramanyan, Goud merges folk, classical, and popular art traditions, breaking boundaries between major and minor art forms. In this work, human figures are placed against a natural background of trees, drawing from his childhood memories. The figures are realistically detailed yet gently stylized, resembling puppets, and the intricate contours enhance the richness of the composition. His other works include Woman, Man, and Landscape of Turkey.

Triumph of Labour

This large bronze sculpture by Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury, installed at Marina Beach, Chennai in 1959, powerfully depicts four men struggling to move a rock, symbolizing the strength of human labour in nation-building. Created for Republic Day, it shows muscular men battling nature with determination, a theme drawn from 19th-century romanticism. Chowdhury focused on the detailed anatomy—bones, veins, and flesh—to express intense physical effort. Placed on a high pedestal, the sculpture invites viewers to walk around it, shifting attention from colonial figures to ordinary Indian workers, celebrating collective effort and resilience.

Santhal Family

This 1937 open-air sculpture by Ramkinker Baij, located at Kala Bhavana, Shantiniketan, is considered India’s first modern public sculpture. Made from cement mixed with pebbles and metal armature, it shows a Santhal family—a man carrying children in baskets, his wife, and a dog—possibly migrating with their belongings. Inspired by rural life, Baij gives this everyday scene a monumental presence. The sculpture is made in the round, allowing it to be viewed from all sides, and placed on a low pedestal to connect with the viewer’s space. By using cement instead of traditional materials like stone or marble, Baij emphasized modernity and broke away from classical norms in Indian sculpture.

Cries Un-heard

This 1958 bronze sculpture by Amarnath Sahgal uses abstract, stick-like forms to represent a family—a man, woman, and child—raising their arms in a desperate cry for help. Though simplified in form, the emotion is clear, capturing the helplessness and suffering of millions of poor families. The gesture of outstretched arms becomes a permanent symbol of their silent plea. The work carries a strong socialist message, paying tribute to the ignored and needy. Renowned writer Mulk Raj Anand praised this powerful piece, which is now part of the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi.

Ganesha

This 1970 sculpture in oxidised copper by P. V. Janakiram, housed at the NGMA, Delhi, shows Ganesha playing the vina, crafted in a frontal style that echoes South Indian temple sculptures. Made from beaten copper sheets, the sculpture features linear welds that form facial features and decorative patterns, giving it a pictorial and iconic feel. While it stands as a three-dimensional form, Janakiram emphasizes linear silhouettes over volume, creating a sense of lyrical rhythm and stylisation. The work blends folk and traditional art with a modern sensibility, reflecting his deep understanding of indigenous craftsmanship and religious imagery.

Vanshri

Mrinalini Mukherjee’s 1994 sculpture titled Vanshri or “Goddess of the Woods” is made using an unusual material—hemp fibre—which she began experimenting with in the 1970s. Through intricate knotting and weaving, she transforms the coarse jute fibre into a complex, monumental form. Once dismissed as mere craft, her fibre sculptures are now praised for their originality and bold imagination. In Vanshri, the form subtly reveals a face with inward expression and protruding lips, radiating a strong, earthy sense of natural divinity, blending art, craft, and spiritual symbolism.