The Harappan Civilization was one of the oldest and most advanced groups of people who lived together a long time ago, around 4,500 years back. They lived in a big area that is now part of India and Pakistan. So, in simple words: The Harappan Civilization was a group of ancient people who lived in well-planned cities, made beautiful things, and lived a smart and organized life.
Introduction:
Imagine a time when people around the world lived in jungles, but during that period, a highly advanced civilization existed in the India-Pakistan region. This civilization had:
- Planned cities
- Houses made of bricks
- An efficient drainage system
- Proper roads
- Even international trade!"
In the 1920s, British archaeologists made an incredible discovery while excavating a place called Harappa. To their surprise, they unearthed an entire ancient city buried under the ground!
Because of this discovery, the civilization was named the Harappan Civilization. And since it was located near the Indus River, it’s also known as the Indus Valley Civilization.
Early Harappan (6000 BCE - 2600 BCE) – This phase was like the childhood of the civilization – a time of growth and development!
It was the formative phase where people were learning how to build cities and develop urban life!
Mature Harappan (2600 BCE - 1900 BCE)
This was the most developed phase of the Harappan Civilization.
There was a major rise in urban development.
Cities became well-planned Drainage systems were advanced Construction and organization were highly efficient
This was the peak or golden phase of the Harappan Civilization
Late Harappan (1900 BCE - 1300 BCE)
This was the time when the Harappan Civilization started to decline.
Slowly, things began to fall apart — cities were abandoned or fell into ruins.
The once-thriving urban life became less vibrant, and people started moving away.
It marked the end of one of the oldest urban cultures in the world. The reasons for this decline are still not completely clear, but it was a gradual process.
Regions Where the Harappan Civilization Was Found
The Harappan Civilization had an extensive geographical spread.
In present-day Pakistan:
Afghanistan Baluchistan Sindh Punjab
In present-day India:
Jammu & Kashmir Punjab & Haryana Rajasthan & Gujarat Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra
Artifacts and Technology of the Harappan Civilization
The art and technology developed by the Harappans continue to impress scholars and historians even today.
- Red and Black Pottery : Beautifully crafted pottery with intricate designs.
- Bricks (Baked and Unbaked) : Standardized brick sizes used in construction.
- Seals with Animal Engravings : Unique seals, often depicting animals, used for trade and identification.
- Weights and Beads : Carefully crafted for trade and personal adornment.
- Copper and Bronze Tools : Advanced tools for various tasks, reflecting their metallurgical skills.
Quick Recap
1. Beginnings
Before the Harappan Civilization Became Urban and Advanced (Mature Harappan Phase)
Before the Harappan Civilization became big and urban, there were already some small settlements and early communities in this region.
These small groups were mostly farmers and craftsmen, living in simple villages.
Over time, these small settlements grew and developed into the large, organized cities of the Mature Harappan phase.
What Were These Early Cultures Like?
These smaller cultures had some unique features:
Different Types of Pottery : They made various kinds of earthen pots and utensils.
Basic Agriculture : People practiced farming on a small scale, mainly growing basic crops.
Pastoralism : Some groups were involved in animal husbandry, raising cattle, goats, and other animals.
Crafts and Tools : They also made simple crafts and tools, showing they had some basic knowledge of art and craftsmanship.
Recent Archaeological Evidence
- New archaeological findings reveal that around 7000 BCE, some early farming communities started to develop in the region.
- These communities gradually grew and evolved over time.
- This slow and steady growth eventually led to the emergence of the Mature Harappan Civilization — the phase where urban life truly flourished.
- It shows how the transformation from small agricultural settlements to advanced urban centers was a long, gradual process.
2. Subsistence Strategies
- Harappans loved food and ate both plant-based and animal-based dishes.
- They ate whatever they could find — not picky at all!
- Plant Foods: Archaeologists found burnt grains and seeds at their sites.
Archaeo-botanists at Work
- The study of ancient grains and seeds was done by archaeo-botanists — experts who specialize in studying ancient plants.
- They carefully examined the burnt plant remains from Harappan sites to learn more about what people ate back then.
Grains
- Wheat: A basic food item, probably used to make flatbreads (like roti).
- Barley: An old and healthy grain, often used like oats.
- Lentil: A good source of protein, used to make dishes like dal.
- Chickpea: A common and reliable legume, providing protein and nutrients.
- Sesame: Mainly used for oil, which was good for cooking and adding flavor.
- Millets: These grains were found mainly in Gujarat.
- Even back then, people seemed to follow a healthy lifestyle!
- Rice: Very rare in Harappan sites, which means it was considered a fancy or special food.
Domesticated Animals
- The bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig have been discovered.
- Studies done by experts called archaeo-zoologists (or zooarchaeologists) show that these animals were domesticated, meaning the Harappans raised them for various purposes.
These animals provided:
- Milk and meat (from cattle and buffalo)
- Wool and meat (from sheep and goats)
- Protein source (from pigs)
Wild Animals
- Bones of wild species like boar, deer, and gharial (a type of crocodile) have also been found.
- It is unclear whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or got the meat from nearby hunting communities.
Fish and Fowl
- Remains of fish and birds (fowl) have also been discovered.
- This suggests that fishing and hunting birds were likely part of their food-gathering practices.
Harappan Farming Techniques
How Did They Farm?
Archaeologists have found lots of grains from Harappan sites, proving that farming was important to them. But the exact way they did farming is still a bit of a mystery. We don’t know for sure what tools they used or how they managed their fields. Some experts think they used simple wooden plows to dig the soil. Since many cities were near rivers, they probably used floodwaters to water their fields. They might have also grown crops depending on the season and climate to make the best use of water and land.
Bull Power in Harappan Farming:
The Harappans used bulls mainly for farming, especially for ploughing the fields.
Evidence of Bull Usage
- Archaeologists found seals and terracotta sculptures that show bulls, indicating their importance in agriculture.
- These findings suggest that bulls were used to pull ploughs and help prepare the fields.
Miniature Plough Models
- Small plough models were discovered at Cholistan (Pakistan) and Banawali (Haryana, India).
- These tiny models show that the Harappans made small versions of farming tools, which indicates that ploughing was a common practice.
- This also shows that bulls played a key role in their farming activities.
Kalibangan's Farming Technique:
At Kalibangan, archaeologists found cross-pattern furrows in the fields.
What Does It Mean?
- These cross-patterned furrows show that the Harappans practiced double cropping.
- This means they grew two different crops in the same field at the same time.
- It was a clever way to save space and increase crop yield.
Water Management
- Harappan sites were mostly in dry areas, where water was hard to find.
- But the Harappans were really good at managing water!
- They built wells to get water from underground.
- They made reservoirs and tanks to store rainwater.
- Some places had drainage systems to collect and reuse water
Irrigation Techniques
Canals:
- Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai (Afghanistan), showing that they used water channels for irrigation.
- However, in Punjab and Sindh, no canal remains have been found, possibly because they got silted up or simply disappeared over time.
Wells:
- Wells were a reliable source of water for the Harappans.
- They used these to extract groundwater, especially in areas with limited surface water.
Water Reservoirs (Dholavira, Gujarat)
- At Dholavira, they built water storage tanks to collect and store rainwater.
- This shows their smart planning for water conservation in a region with scarce rainfall.
Harappan Tools: Simple and Smart
- The Harappans made their tools in a simple but clever way.
- They focused on making tools that worked well, even if they were made with basic materials.
Stone Tools:
- They used sharp stone blades and fixed them into wooden handles.
- This made the tools strong and useful.
Metal Tools:
- They also made tools using copper and bronze.
- These tools were tough and good for hard work.
Mohanjodaro A Planned Urban Centre
What Made Mohenjodaro Special?
One of the most unique things about the Harappan Civilization was its planned urban centers. And Mohenjodaro was the best example of this!
Planned City:
- Mohenjodaro was known for its systematic layout.
- The city was designed with a focus on both aesthetics (looks) and functionality (usefulness).
- It had straight streets, organized buildings, and a proper drainage system.
- Mohenjodaro is the most famous Harappan site, the first discovered site was actually Harappa.
The cities in the Harappan Civilization had two main parts:
Citadel:
- Smaller but Higher — this area was built on raised mud brick platforms to make it higher than the rest.
- It was the elite area, where important people lived.
- It had strong walls around it, making it separate from the Lower Town.
Lower Town:
- Larger but Lower — this area was bigger but at a lower level than the citadel.
- It was where common people lived.
- It also had walls for protection — safety was important!
- Most buildings were on raised platforms to keep them strong and stable.
City Planning: How Did the Harappans Build?
The Harappans planned their cities before building them — just like modern builders!
1. Foundation First:
- They built platforms first, which meant that all construction stayed on those platforms.
- This way, there was no random building happening — everything was well-organized.
Brick Standardization:
The Harappans used standard-sized bricks everywhere.
The ratio of the bricks was always the same:
- Length = 4 times the height
- Breadth = 2 times the height
- Bricks were either sun-dried or baked, but the size stayed consistent.
- No matter which site you visit, you find the same type of bricks — they loved symmetry and uniformity.
Harappan Drainage: Cleanliness First!
One of the best features of Harappan cities was their well-planned drainage system!
1. Grid Pattern:
- The roads and streets were arranged in a grid-like pattern, just like modern cities.
- Roads intersected at right angles, forming proper rectangular blocks.
- This layout made the city look organized and neat.
Drainage and Housing:
- Drains were planned alongside the roads — keeping hygiene as a priority.
- Houses were built next to the drains so that domestic waste could directly flow into the street drains.
- This setup made waste disposal easy and efficient.
Smart Design:
- Every house had at least one wall facing the street, making drain access easy.
- This way, water from every house could quickly move into the main drains — no chance of waterlogging!
- Every house had at least one wall facing the street, making drain access easy.
- This way, water from every house could quickly move into the main drains — no chance of waterlogging!
Planned Before Built:
- They always planned the city first and then started construction.
- This means there was no random building — everything was done in an orderly way.
Labor Power:
- Building the city took a huge workforce.
- Every house and drain was built in a systematic way, showing how well they managed people and work.
Hygiene:
- Their drainage system was so good, it could beat many modern cities!
- The drains were designed to keep the city clean and prevent waterlogging.
Harappan Homes: How They Lived
The Lower Town of Mohenjodaro had many residential buildings, giving us a good idea of how Harappans lived.
Courtyard Style Homes:
- The houses had a simple and practical design.
- Most homes were built around a central courtyard — an open space in the middle.
- The courtyard was used for cooking, weaving, and relaxing, especially in the hot, dry weather.
Privacy
- The ground-level walls of the houses had no windows — this kept privacy intact.
- The main entrance was designed so that you couldn’t see directly into the courtyard or inside the house.
Bathroom
- Each house had a brick-paved bathroom — quite an advanced feature!
- The bathroom drains were connected directly to the street drains through the walls, preventing waterlogging.
Staircase for Upper Floors
Some houses had staircases leading to an upper floor or the roof — giving the feel of a duplex!
Wells for Water
- Many houses had their own wells, and some wells were even inside the rooms.
- Some wells were also accessible from outside for passers-by to drink water.
- Mohenjodaro had around 700 wells — they were well-prepared for water needs!
The Citadel
1. Warehouse:
- A huge structure where the lower part made of bricks still exists.
- The upper part (probably made of wood) has decayed over time.
- It was likely used to store grains or important goods — a grand storage area.
The Great Bath
One of the most famous structures — looks almost like a swimming pool!
- Structure: A big rectangular tank in the center.
- Walking Area: There’s a corridor on all four sides for people to walk around.
- Staircase: There are stairs on both the North and South sides to go into the tank.
- Waterproofing Technique:The bricks were set at the edges and stuck together with gypsum mortar to make the tank leak-proof.
- Water Flow: A large drain was made to take water out of the tank, keeping it clean.
- Near the Great Bath, there was another building with eight small bathrooms — set in two rows of four.
- Smart Drainage: Each bathroom had its own drain connected to a main corridor drain — keeping the place clean and hygienic.
- Ritual Link: Since this was also in the Citadel area, it probably had some special purpose too.
4. Tracking Social Differences
1. Harappan Burials:
- The Harappans had a simple way of burying their dead.
- Simple Pits: Usually, they dug basic pits in the ground and placed the bodies inside.
- Sometimes, they made the pits a bit fancy by lining them with bricks — giving it a premium touch.
- Archaeologists are still not sure if these differences show social status or just personal choice.
2. Grave Goods:
- In some graves, archaeologists found pottery and ornaments — maybe the Harappans thought they might need accessories in the afterlife.
- Jewelry: Both men and women had jewelry in their graves — showing a sense of equality.
- Example: In a 1980s dig at Harappa, they found a set of 3 shell rings, a jasper bead (semi-precious), and tiny beads near a man's skull.
- Some graves also had copper mirrors, suggesting they still cared about their appearance after death.
Not Much Luxury:
- Unlike some ancient cultures, Harappans didn’t bury gold or expensive items with their dead.
- The grave goods were mostly simple and practical, showing that luxury wasn’t a big deal even in burials.
Harappan Artefacts: Luxury vs. Basic
a. Utilitarian (Everyday Items):
- These were basic, daily-use items made from local materials.
- Examples include stone tools, clay pots, and needles.
- Simple and practical — used for regular tasks.
b. Luxury (High-Value Items):
- These were rare, imported, or complicated to make.
- Example: Faience pots — shiny, colorful, and hard to create.
- These items had a rich and decorative vibe.
2. Sometimes It’s Confusing:
- Sometimes, a basic item made from rare material can be confusing.
- For example, a spindle whorl (usually basic) made from faience (a luxury material) — should we call it basic or luxury?
- This mix of function and material makes it hard to classify.
Big Harappan Cities (like Mohenjodaro, Harappa):
- Most luxury items were found here.
- These cities had a rich and vibrant material culture.
Small Settlements (like Kalibangan):
- Very few fancy items were discovered.
- Mostly basic, everyday objects.
Gold:
Rare and Special:
- Gold items were super rare and usually found in hoards (hidden collections), not lying around.
- This shows that even Harappans saw gold as valuable and special.
Finding Out About Craft Production
Chanhudaro
- Location and Size: Chanhudaro was a small but important Harappan site.
- It covered less than 7 hectares — much smaller compared to Mohenjodaro’s 125 hectares.
- It was mainly a craft production center — not much residential space, just a place for full-time crafting!
Craft Specialties:
- Bead-making — creating beautiful beads from various materials.
- Shell-cutting — shaping shells for ornaments.
- Metal-working — making tools and decorative items.
- Seal-making — producing seals for trade and identification.
- Weight-making — crafting standardized weights for trade.
Bead-Making
1. Materials Used:
a. Stones:
Carnelian (red), Jasper, Crystal, Quartz, Steatite — common stones used for making beads.
b. Metals:
Copper, Bronze, Gold — metals added a touch of luxury.
c. Others:
- Shell, Faience (shiny), Terracotta (burnt clay) — for more variety and style.
- Some beads had gold caps, and some were made from a combination of stones — a sign of ancient style and fashion.
Red Carnelian
- Raw Carnelian: Naturally yellowish.
- Red Color: Achieved by heating the raw material during different stages — firing turned it red.
Nageshwar and Balakot
- Location: Near the coastline – perfect for shell crafts.
- Specialization: Making shell objects – bangles, ladles, inlay work.
- Distribution: These products were then sent to other urban centres.
- Location: Near the coastline – perfect for shell crafts.
- Specialization: Making shell objects – bangles, ladles, inlay work.
- Distribution: These products were then sent to other urban centres.
Craft Distribution:
Similarly, finished beads from Chanhudaro and Lothal reached big cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
Identifying centres of production
Key Indicators:
- Raw Material: Stones, shells, copper ore.
- Tools: Specialised drills, cutters, moulds.
- Unfinished Objects: Half-done beads, broken seals.
Rejects/Waste Material:
- Craft waste = best proof of production.
- E.g., Shell/stone bits left after cutting.
- Sometimes big waste reused, but tiny bits usually left behind
Finding Out About Craft Production
1. Getting the Goods: How Harappans Sourced Materials
Local Materials:
These were easy to find and close by.
Example:
Clay — commonly available near their settlements, perfect for making pots and bricks.
b. Non-local Materials:
These were not found locally and had to be brought from outside the alluvial plains.
Examples:
- Stone: Needed for tools and construction.
- Timber: Used for building and crafting.
- Metals: Like copper and bronze — important for making tools and ornaments.
a. Bullock Carts:
- Terracotta models found at sites show that bullock carts were a popular way to move goods.
- Worked like a desi truck system for carrying heavy loads.
b. River Routes:
- The Indus River and its tributaries were used for water transport.
- Boats likely helped move materials over long distances.
c. Coastal Routes:
- Used especially for long-distance trade.
- The sea routes allowed the Harappans to connect with other regions and bring in rare materials.
Homegrown Settlements for Raw Materials:
a. Nageshwar and Balakot:
- Located near the coastal areas.
- Mainly used for sourcing shell — perfect for making ornaments and tools.
b. Shortughai (Afghanistan):
- Known for lapis lazuli — a valuable blue stone used for making jewelry.
- Considered a premium resource.
c. Lothal:
- Located close to important resource areas: Carnelian from Bharuch.
- Steatite from South Rajasthan and North Gujarat.
- Metal from Rajasthan.
- This made Lothal a key hub for raw material processing.
Expeditions for Resources:
- Sometimes, the Harappans sent expeditions to gather valuable resources.
- This means they organized teams to travel and bring back materials.
a. Khetri (Rajasthan):
- Famous for copper mining.
- Harappan artefacts found there suggest they collected copper from this region.
b. South India:
- Known for gold resources.
- Some Harappan gold objects traced back to this area, showing they traded or collected gold from the south.
Contact with distant lands
1. Copper from Oman:
The Harappans sourced copper from Oman (Arabian Peninsula).
Chemical Analysis:
Both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts show traces of nickel, suggesting they came from the same source.
Harappan Jars in Oman
- Large jars with a black clay coating were found in Oman.
- The coating was probably to prevent liquid leakage — likely used to exchange goods.
Mesopotamian Connection: Harappan Trade Vibes
Copper from Magan (Oman)
- Mesopotamian texts (around 3000 BCE) mention copper coming from a place called Magan – which most likely means Oman.
- Harappans and Mesopotamians were definitely business partners when it came to copper!
Trade Routes and Partners
Mesopotamians also talk about doing business with places called Dilmun (Bahrain), Magan (Oman), and Meluhha (Harappa region).
Harappan Export Items
- Harappans sent
- Carnelian (red stone)
- Lapis Lazuli (blue stone),
- Copper
- Gold
- Wood.
How They Traveled
Mostly used sea routes – ships and boats
Cultural Proof
- Archaeologists found Harappan seals, dice, and beads in Mesopotamia.
- Proof that Harappans not only traded goods but also shared their culture.
Seals, Script, Weights
The Harappans used seals as a way to secure packages.
1. How It Worked:
- Imagine you’re sending a package to your friend far away.
- You tie the mouth of the package with a rope.
- Then, you put some wet clay on the knot.
- Next, you press a seal onto the clay — and there you go
An enigmatic script
Writing and Symbols:
- Along with the text, seals also featured a motif (usually an animal).
- This might have helped those who could not read to recognize the owner — like a symbol saying, "This is mine!"
Why Is It So Confusing?
- The Harappan script is still undeciphered, meaning no one has fully understood it yet.
- It is not alphabetical and has too many signs — around 375 to 400, making it quite complex.
- The script appears to be written from right to left.
Where All This Writing Found?
Seals, copper tools, jars, tablets, jewellery, bone rods, even signboards
Weights
Material Used:
- They mostly used chert stone for making weights.
- The weights were in a cubical shape — no fancy designs, just simple and practical.
- Even without decorations, they were well-made and accurate.
1. Binary System (Small Weights):
- Used for measuring small things like jewellery and beads.
- The weights followed a binary pattern:1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32These small weights helped in precise measurements for light items.
2. Decimal System (Large Weights):
- Used for measuring larger items like grain or heavy goods.
- The weights followed a decimal pattern:160, 200, 320, 640
- These bigger weights were useful for bulk measurement.
8. Ancient Authority
Uniformity in Harappan Society
- The Harappan society was known for its remarkable uniformity.
- Everything from pottery, seals, weights, to bricks had the same size and style — very systematic and organized!
1 Uniform Bricks:
Bricks found in different places, from Jammu to Gujarat, had the same size ratio.
Even though they were made at different sites, the consistency shows that there was some kind of coordination.
This suggests the presence of an organizing authority that ensured standardization.
2. Palaces and Kings:
At Mohenjodaro, a large building was labeled as a "palace", but there was no evidence of it being a royal residence — no luxurious items or royal symbols.
A stone statue found there was called the "Priest-King" because of its style, influenced by Mesopotamian art.However, there is no solid proof that this figure was actually a king.
3 Theories on Leadership
No Ruler Theory: The idea that there was no king — everyone was equal.Harappan society was possibly peaceful and balanced, with shared decision-making.
Multiple Rulers Theory: Each city had its own leader — for example, Mohenjodaro had one ruler, Harappa another.This theory suggests a city-based power structure.
Single State Theory: The entire region was controlled by one central authority.Evidence for this includes uniform artefacts, planned cities, and standardized brick sizes — all following a common rulebook.
9. The End of Harappan Civilization
How Did It All End?
Abandonment:
- Around 1800 BCE, most Mature Harappan sites (like Cholistan) were abandoned.
- People shifted to new areas – Gujarat, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh.
- The fancy Harappan stuff started disappearing – no more weights, seals, special beads.
1. Loss of Skills and Trade
- Writing disappeared — no more inscriptions or texts found.
- Long-distance trade slowed down — fewer imported items discovered.
- Craft specialization also declined — less evidence of skilled craftsmanship.Overall, everything became more low-key and simple.
2. Changes in Construction:
- The quality of buildings also dropped — houses became simpler and more basic.
- There were no large public structures like before — construction became less organized.
Theories Behind the Collapse:
1. Climatic Change:Weather changes affected the region, leading to unfavorable conditions for agriculture and daily life.
2. Deforestation:Excessive cutting down of trees led to loss of vegetation, impacting the environment and resources.
3. Floods:Severe flooding destroyed cities and settlements. These floods may have caused widespread damage to infrastructure and homes.
4. Rivers Shifting/Drying: The Indus River and its tributaries changed their course or dried up.This made it difficult for people to access water and maintain agriculture.
5. Overuse of Land: Continuous exploitation of land led to soil degradation.Resources became scarce as the land could no longer support large populations.
10. Discovering the Harappan Civilization
Cunningham’s Confusion:
Who Was He?
- Sir Alexander Cunningham was the first Director-General of the ASI (Archaeological Survey of India).
- He worked in the 19th century and focused mainly on the Early Historic Period (6th century BCE - 4th century CE).
- He used Chinese Buddhist pilgrims’ travel accounts to find ancient sites.
- His main interest was in the Ganga Valley cities.
- Cunningham did not recognize Harappa as an Early Historic city, so he didn’t give it much importance.
- An Englishman gave him a Harappan seal, and although he noted it down, he didn’t realize it was from an ancient civilization.
Why the Confusion?
Cunningham believed that Indian history started with the Ganga Valley cities, so Harappa didn’t fit his idea of ancient history.
Early 20th Century Discoveries:
Archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni found more seals at Harappa, realizing they were much older than previously thought.
Meanwhile, Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro — indicating that both sites were part of the same culture.
Official Recognition:
In 1924, John Marshall, then Director-General of ASI, officially declared the existence of the Harappan Civilization.
This marked the beginning of global awareness about this ancient culture.
Global Realization
Later, Harappan seals were also found in Mesopotamia.
This discovery showed that the Harappan Civilization was contemporary with Mesopotamia — both existed around the same time.
The world recognized that the Harappans were part of an ancient global network.
Problems of Interpretation: Harappan Religion Confusion
Why Is It So Hard to Understand?
- When archaeologists find ancient artefacts, they sometimes think unusual or unique items must be religious objects.
- The problem is that Harappan religion is difficult to interpret because the objects found don’t clearly explain their purpose.
- This leaves room for a lot of guesswork.
Mother Goddess or Something Else?
Terracotta Figurines:
- Some small terracotta figurines have been found — usually women with heavy jewellery and elaborate head-dresses.
- Early archaeologists called these “Mother Goddess” figures because they seemed to fit traditional ideas of fertility goddesses.
- But this is just a guess — there is no definite proof that they represent a Mother Goddess
Priest-King Statue:
- A stone statue of a man, sitting with one hand on the knee, was found.
- Archaeologists named it the “Priest-King” because it resembled the priest-king concept seen in Mesopotamia.
- However, there is no solid evidence that this figure was actually a king or a religious leader.
- The rituals and political roles of the Harappans are still a mystery.
Great Bath (Mohenjodaro):
- Archaeologists believe it might have been a place for ritual bathing — but this is just a theory.
- There is also a possibility that it was simply a swimming pool for relaxation and socializing — no one knows for sure!
Fire Altars (Kalibangan, Lothal):
- These structures seem to be made for ritualistic fire practices.
- However, there is no concrete proof about their exact purpose.
- It’s just an assumption that they were used for rituals.
Seals and Symbols: Myth or Reality?
Seals with Ritual Scenes:
