Chapter - 7
Capital of an Empire: Vijayanagara
The Vijayanagara Empire emerged as a powerful empire from around 14th to 16th century. It was called the city of victors. It was characterized by its powerful rulers who took it to its peak.
Vijayanagara - The City of Victory
- The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by two brothers Harihara and Bukka in 1336 .
- People speaking different languages and following different religious traditions lived in this empire .
- The empire extended from the Krishna River in the north to the far south .
- It was attacked and plundered in 1565 , and by the 17th–18th centuries it was completely destroyed .
- It nevertheless remained alive in the memories of the inhabitants of the Krishna and Tungabhadra Doab region, who remembered it as Hampi .
- In Hampi, it comes from the name of the local mother goddess Pampadevi .
- When scholars researched it , oral tradition and archaeological discoveries , architectural samples , records and documents proved to be very helpful.
Exploring Hampi
- The ruins of Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie , an engineer and archaeologist , who was working for the East India Company .
1. Colin Mackenzie
- Colling Mackenzie was born in 1754. He was famous as an engineer, surveyor and cartographer.
- In 1815 he was made the first Surveyor General of India and remained in this position until his death in 1821.
- To better understand India's past and facilitate administration of the colony, he began collecting local traditions related to history and surveying historical sites.
- Mackenzie prepared the first survey map of Hampi, based on the information he obtained from the memories of the priests of the Virupaksha Temple and the temple of Pampa Devi.
2. Other sources of information about Hampi
- 1836 epigraphers collected several dozen inscriptions from here and other temples in Hampi .
- In 1856, photographers started collecting photographs of the buildings here, and researchers studied these photographs.
- Historians have studied a variety of sources, such as accounts of foreign travellers and literature written in Telugu , Kannada , Tamil and Sanskrit , in an attempt to reconstruct the history of the Vijayanagara Empire .
Administration in Vijayanagara
1. Characteristics of the Vijayanagara Empire
- The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers Harihar and Bukka. The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire were in constant conflict with contemporary kings such as the Sultan of Deccan and the Gajapati ruler of Orissa.
- There was a struggle for control over the fertile river valley and the wealth generated by foreign trade. The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted the building techniques and developed them further.
- He witnessed the development of the kingdoms of the Chola emperors of Tamil Nadu and the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka.
- The ruling classes of these regions patronised the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur and the Channakeshava Temple at Belur, a tradition that was carried forward by the Vijayanagara rulers.
- The rulers of Vijayanagara called themselves Rai.
2. Rulers and traders
- During this period warfare was dependent on cavalry , therefore states imported horses from Arabia and Central Asia ; initially this trade was controlled by Arab traders .
- Also, local groups of traders called Kudirai Chetti or horse traders participated in this exchange .
- The Portuguese arrived on the west coast in 1498 and attempted to establish a trading and strategic centre . The Portuguese had superior military technology and guns, which enabled them to emerge as a significant power .
- Vijayanagara was famous for its market of spices , textiles and gems.
- The people here were rich , the people here demanded expensive foreign goods , special gems and jewellery.
- Revenue was obtained from trade , which contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state.
3. Rise and fall of the state
- The contenders for power in politics included members of the ruling dynasty and military commanders. Four major dynasties ruled the Vijayanagara Empire .
1. Rule of Sangam dynasty :- First dynasty Sangam.
2. Rule of Suluva Dynasty :- Sangam dynasty was overthrown by Suluva.
3. Rule of Tuluva Dynasty :- Tuluvas overthrew them, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to Tuluva dynasty.
4. Aravidu Dynasty Rule :- This was the last dynasty.
Krishnadevaraya
- Krishnadevaraya expanded his empire and strengthened it.
- During this period, the area between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers was acquired.
- In 1514, the rulers of Orissa were suppressed and the Sultan of Bijapur was badly defeated.
- The state was always strategically prepared.
- The kingdom flourished in unparalleled peace and prosperity.
- Many temples were built, and Krishnadeva Raya is credited with adding the grand gopuram to the temples of South India.
- He founded a suburb named Nagalapuram near Vijayanagara in the name of his mother.
- After Krishnadevaraya's death in 1529, the regime began to weaken.
- His successors faced challenges from rebel chiefs and generals.
- By 1542, control of the centre passed into the hands of Aravidu.
4. End of Vijayanagara Empire
- In 1565, the Vijayanagara army led by Prime Minister Rama Raya fought the Battle of Rakshasi Tangadi, also known as the Battle of Talikota.
- In this war, the joint army of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda attacked Vijayanagar and the army of Vijayanagar was defeated.
- After a few years this city started falling into ruins, the victorious army looted Vijayanagara extensively.
- The rule shifted eastwards, with the Aravidu dynasty now ruling from Penukonda and later from Chandagiri.
5. Opinion and hero
1. Rai :- Ruler of Vijayanagara
2 Nayak :- The army chief was called Nayak
Hero :-
- They exercised power in the empire , and controlled the Nayak Kilas .
- They had armed supporters and were usually on the move from one place to another .
- Many times the heroes would go in search of fertile land to settle and the farmers would also accompany them .
- They usually spoke Telugu or Kannada language .
- Many heroes had surrendered to the domination of the Vijayanagar ruler .
- They would often revolt and were controlled only through military action .
6. Immortal hero system
- The Amar Nayaka system was the major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire , which was similar to the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate .
- Amar Nayak was a military commander , who was given areas for administration by the Rai .
- Amar Nayak used to collect land revenue and other taxes from the farmers , artisans and traders in those areas .
- The Amar Nayak used to retain a portion of the revenue for his personal use and for the maintenance of his retinue of horses and elephants .
- These groups were helpful in providing an effective military force to the Vijayanagara ruler , with their help he controlled South India .
- A part of the revenue was spent on the maintenance of temples and means of irrigation .
- Amar Nayak used to send gifts to the king once a year and would personally appear in the court with gifts to show his devotion to his master .
- The kings sometimes transferred them from one place to another .
- In the 17th century many of these heroes established their own independent kingdoms .
The capital of Vijayanagara and its environs
1. Water resources
How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met ?
- The most surprising fact about the geographical location of Vijay Nagar is that it is a natural pool formed by the Tunga Bhadra river . This river flows in the north-east direction .
- The surrounding landscape is dominated by granite hills , which form a girdle around the city .
- Many streams flow from these hills and join the river . Dams were built along almost all the streams to create tanks of different sizes.
- This area was a dry area , hence there was a need for water storage and management here .
- Hence an important reservoir was constructed in the early years of the 15th century , which is today known as the Kamalapuram Reservoir .
- The water from this tank was used to irrigate the surrounding fields , and the water was also taken to the royal centre through a canal .
- Evidence of another important water structure, the Hiriya Canal , has also been found. This canal can still be seen among the ruins . Water was brought to this canal from the dam built on the Tunga Bhadra .
- This water was also used for irrigation ; it was probably constructed by the kings of the Sangam dynasty .
2. Fortifications and roads
- Fortifications had great importance in the Vijayanagara Empire , we get information about the fortifications from the description of Abdur Razzaq, an envoy from Persia .
- Abdur Razzaq came to Calicut in the 15th century . He was surprised to see the fortifications here , in Vijayanagara not only the city was fortified , but the fields and forests were also fortified here . The outermost wall connected the hills built around the city .
- The stones used to build the wall were wedge-shaped and thus would rest on one another and no mortar was used to join them .
- Abdul Razzaq writes that between the first , second and third walls there were ploughed fields , gardens and residences .
- Paes writes that where they grew paddy , there were many gardens and water was brought from two lakes .
3. Why were the fields fortified ?
- The fields were fortified so that grains and food items could be protected from the enemy.
- Granaries were also built for this purpose. So that grains and food items could be kept safe for a long time .
- The Vijayanagara ruler adopted a more expensive and extensive policy to protect the empire and agricultural land .
- The second fortification was built around the interior of the urban centre .
- The third fortification surrounded the administrative centre. Well-defended entrances were built to enter the fort .
- These gateways connected the city to the main roads. The gateways were examples of unique architecture .
- The arch at the entrance to the fortified settlement as well as the dome above the gate were considered to be elements of architecture promoted by the Turkish sultans. Art historians call this style Indo - Islamic.
- Archaeologists have studied the roads leading into and out of the city , which mostly avoided hilly terrain and meandered through valleys .
- Many of the most important streets led from the temple entrances , with markets on both sides .
4. Urban centre
- There is little evidence of ordinary people's housing on the roads leading to the urban centre .
- Archaeologists have found sophisticated ceramics at some sites ; it is believed that these places were inhabited by wealthy merchants .
- There was also a Muslim residential area here . Some mosques and tombs have also been found here. Their architecture is similar to the architecture of the mandapas of the temples found in Hampi .
- The Portuguese traveller Barbosa describes the other houses of the people as being of thatched roofs , but nevertheless strong and arranged in long streets with many open spaces depending on the occupation .
- These field surveys revealed that there were many places of worship and small temples in the area .
- Many reservoirs have also been found here .
State Centre
1. Characteristics of the State Center
- The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. There were more than 60 temples here. The rulers patronised temples and cults.
- About 30 structures have been identified as palaces, fairly large structures that are not associated with ceremonial functions.
- Many distinctive structures in this area were named based on the shape of the buildings and their functions.
- A huge structure has been found in this area, its name is Raja Ka Bhawan but no evidence has been found that it was the residence of the king.
- The royal centre had two impressive stages called the Sabha Mandapa and the Mahanavami Dibba.
1. Sabha Mandap
- The whole area is surrounded by high double walls and there is a street in between them . The Sabha Mandap is a high platform in which holes are made for wooden pillars close together and at a fixed distance .
- Its second floor, which rested on these pillars , had stairs to go up to the second floor .
- With the pillars being so close to each other there would have been very little open space left , so it is not clear for what purpose this mandapa was built .
2. Mahanavami Box
- Mahanavami Dibba is a giant platform situated at the highest point of the city .
- It rises to a height of 40 feet from a base of approximately 11000 square feet .
- A wooden structure was built on it and some pictures have been found on the base of the platform .
- The rituals associated with this structure are known as Dussehra (North India) , Durga Puja (Bengal) and Navaratri or Mahanavami, a 10- day Hindu festival celebrated during the autumn months of September and October .
- On this occasion the rulers of Vijayanagara used to display their status and power .
- On this occasion religious rituals included idol worship , worship of the state horse , and sacrifice of buffalo and other animals .
- Dances , wrestling competitions and processions of horses , elephants, chariots and soldiers were organised
- The highlight of the occasion was the ceremonial presentation made by the major nayakas and subordinate kings to the king and his guests .
- On the last day of the festival the king would inspect the army of his heroes in a ceremony held in the open field .
2. Other buildings located in the State Center
1. Lotus Palace
- One of the most beautiful buildings of the State Centre is Kamal Mahal. It was named by British travellers in the 19th century but it could not be ascertained for what purpose this building was built .
- Mackenzie made a map which suggests that this was a council house where the king met his advisors .
2. Thousand Ram Temples
- Most of the temples are located in religious centers, but some temples are also found in political centers, among them one of the most worth seeing is called Hazar Ram Temple .
- It was probably used only by the king or his family. Some sculptures were made on the walls. Some pictures of Ramayana are found on the inner walls. When this city was attacked, many structures were destroyed .
3. Religious Centre
1. Local recognition
- The rocky outcrops and hills along the banks of the Tungabhadra River are mentioned in the Ramayana as protecting the monkey kingdom of Bali and Sugriva .
- Mother Goddess Pampadevi performed penance in these hills to marry Lord Virupaksha. Virupaksha is considered to be the patron deity of the kingdom and a form of Lord Shiva. Even today this marriage is celebrated with great pomp every year in the Virupaksha temple .
- Jain temples dating back to the pre-Vijayanagara Empire period have also been found in these hills .
2. Religious beliefs
- The region is associated with many religious beliefs and has a long history of temple building .
- The Pallava rulers , Chalukya rulers , Hoysala rulers and even the Chola dynasty have constructed temples .
- Rulers usually encouraged temple construction to connect themselves with God .
- Temples served as centres of education , with rulers and others donating land and property for the maintenance of temples .
- The rulers of Vijayanagara claimed to rule on behalf of Lord Virupaksha , and all royal orders bore the words Shri Virupaksha inscribed in Kannada .
- The Vijayanagara rulers adopted the earlier traditions and also brought some innovations in them and developed them further .
4. Gopuram and Mandapa
- Gopurams were very tall. Gopurams were the entrances to the temple . Gopurams indicated the presence of a temple from a long distance .
- The minarets of the central temple were smaller in comparison to these, which shows the power of the ruler that he had gathered the necessary resources, technology and skills to build such a tall tower .
- Other distinctive architectural features were mandapas and long pillared corridors, often built around deities within temple compounds .
5. Important Temples
1. Virupaksha
- The Virupaksha Temple was built over several centuries , with further expansion being done after the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire .
- The pavilion in front of the main temple was built by Krishnadeva Raya to commemorate his coronation. The credit for the construction of the eastern gopuram is also given to Krishnadeva Raya .
- The central temple occupied a small portion of the complex; the temple halls were used for a variety of purposes, such as displaying idols of deities and viewing music , dance and drama performances .
- Other halls were used to celebrate the marriage festivities of the gods and goddesses and some others were used to swing the gods and goddesses .
- Special statues were used on these occasions , different from those installed in the small central shrine .
2. Vitthal Temple
- The main deity here was Vitthal , a form of Vishnu worshipped in the Maharashtra region. The worship of this deity was also started in Karnataka .
- This shows that the rulers of Vijayanagara assimilated different traditions .
- Like other temples, it also had several halls and a unique chariot-shaped temple .
- A characteristic feature of the temple complexes are the chariot lanes which lead in a straight line to the temple gopuram .
- The floors of these streets were made of stone pieces. On both sides of these streets there were pillared pavilions in which the merchants used to set up their shops .
Marking of palaces , temples and markets
- In the twentieth century, this place was conserved by the Archaeological Survey of India and the Karnataka Archaeological and Museum Department. In 1976 , Hampi was recognized as a place of national importance .
- In the early 1980s , a major scheme was launched to study the remains from Vijayanagara in detail through surveys and using various types of recording .
- Over a period of approximately 20 years, dozens of scholars from around the world worked to collect and preserve this information .
- Map making was the first step. The entire area was divided into 25 square parts . Each square was named after a letter of the alphabet. The smaller squares were then further divided into smaller groups. The smaller squares were then further divided into even smaller units. This extensive survey was carried out with great effort and fragments of thousands of structures, from small shrines and residences to large temples , were rediscovered .
- It is important to remember what John M. Freitas, George Michell and M. S. Nagaraj Rao, who worked at the site for many years , wrote: "In our study of the Vijayanagara monuments we have to imagine a whole series of ruined wooden objects - tanks , beams , inner ceilings, the interiors of overhanging eaves and minarets, all decorated with stucco and painted in bright colours in the period .
- Though the wooden structures no longer exist and only the stone structures survive, the descriptions left behind by travellers help reconstruct some aspects of the vibrant life of those times .
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